Cofactor regeneration system

ABSTRACT

The present invention relates to cofactor regeneration systems, components and uses thereof and methods for generating and regenerating cofactors. The cofactor regeneration system comprises a first electron transfer component selected from a polypeptide comprising a NADH:acceptor oxido-reductase or NADPH:acceptor oxido-reductase, a second electron transfer component selected from a hydrogenase moiety and/or non-biological nanoparticles and an electronically conducting surface. The first and second electron transfer components are immobilised on the electrically conducting surface, and the first and second electron transfer components do not occur together in nature as an enzyme complex.

COFACTOR REGENERATION SYSTEM

This application is a Continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/349,126, filed 2 Apr. 2014, which is a National Stage Application of PCT/GB2012/052451, filed 3 Oct. 2012, which claims benefit of Serial No. 1116971.1, filed 3 Oct. 2011 in Great Britain and which applications are incorporated herein by reference. To the extent appropriate, a claim of priority is made to each of the above disclosed applications.

The work leading to this invention has received funding from the European Research Council under the European Union's Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013)/ERC grant agreement No. 258600.10.

The present invention relates to a cofactor regeneration system, components and uses thereof, products comprising said cofactor regeneration system and components thereof, as well as methods for cofactor generation and regeneration.

Cofactors are non-protein chemical compounds that play an essential role in many enzyme catalysed biochemical reactions. Cofactors act to transfer chemical groups between enzymes. Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD⁺), and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP⁺) and the reduced forms of said molecules (NADH and NADPH, respectively) are biological cofactors which play a central role in the metabolism of cells acting as electron transfer agents. The oxidized forms NAD⁺ and NADP⁺ act as electron acceptors, becoming reduced in the process. NADH and NADPH, in turn, can act as reducing agents, becoming oxidized in the process.

Enzymes are commonly used as biocatalysts in the chemical and pharmaceutical industries. Redox enzymes—those that mediate oxidation or reduction reactions—form a significant subset of enzymes that are useful in industrial applications. However, most redox enzymes are dependent on expensive cofactors such as NADPH (approx. $500 for 0.75 g). To date, the use of NAD(P)H-dependent catalysts has been severely limited by the absence of industrially useful methods for recycling NAD(P)H. Currently, NADH is often regenerated using a formate dehydrogenase system. This process produces CO₂ which strongly affects the pH of the reaction solution. The formate dehydrogenase system is characterised by a low turnover frequency and a limited half-life. Also, formate (the substrate for cofactor regeneration) contaminates the product of the coupled enzyme reaction. NADPH is currently often regenerated using a glucose dehydrogenase system in which glucose and its oxidized form contaminate the product of the coupled enzyme system.

Electrochemical regeneration of cofactors at conventional electrodes requires a large overpotential (meaning loss of energy). Some modified electrodes have been reported, e.g. with poly(Neutral Red), but modifiers may be toxic or damaging to enzymes. Another major disadvantage is that bio-inactive forms (e.g. dimers) of NAD⁺/NADH may be generated in the electrode reaction.

There is, therefore, a need to provide an alternative and/or improved cofactor regeneration system.

The present invention solves one or more of the above mentioned problems.

In one aspect, the invention provides a cofactor regeneration system comprising or consisting of:

-   -   i) a first electron transfer component selected from one or more         polypeptides comprising a NADH:acceptor oxido-reductase or a         NADPH:acceptor oxido-reductase,     -   ii) a second electron transfer component selected from a         hydrogenase moiety and/or non-biological nanoparticles; and,     -   iii) an electronically conducting surface;         wherein the first and second electron transfer components are         immobilised on the electrically conducting surface, and wherein         the first and second electron transfer components do not occur         together in nature as an enzyme complex.

The invention advantageously provides a highly efficient, rapid and/or robust cofactor regeneration system for biological cofactors. Said system provides a welcome replacement for the expensive and/or inefficient systems presently being used. As discussed above, extant methods of electrochemical cofactor regeneration require a fairly large overpotential (meaning loss of energy) to operate. The present invention advantageously utilizes catalysts that work at minimal, or undetectable, overpotential and is energetically efficient.

In addition, the invention advantageously provides a cofactor regeneration system which is modular in structure. Thus, the system can be tuned (by choice of different components of the system) for a specific application and/or condition(s). This provides a great deal of flexibility and allows optimization of the cofactor regeneration system depending on the application/conditions. For example, an oxygen (O₂)—tolerant hydrogenase may be selected as the second electron transfer component if the cofactor regeneration system is used to supply cofactors to enzymes requiring O₂, such as cytochrome P450 mono-oxygenases. In contrast, extant systems employing formate dehydrogenase (FDH) and/or glucose dehydrogenase (GDH) are limited to specific operating condition requirements (e.g. a narrow pH range).

Another advantage of the present invention is the ability to employ H₂ as the electron donor and/or H⁺ as the electron sink. The system therefore does not require the addition of other soluble reagents or products, which are hard to separate after cofactor regeneration has taken place.

Examples of cofactors embraced by the present invention include nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD⁺) and the reduced form of NAD⁺, namely NADH, as well as nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP⁺) and the reduced form of NADP⁺, namely NADPH.

In one embodiment, said first electron transfer component comprises or consists of a NADH:acceptor oxido-reductase or NADPH:acceptor oxidoreductase. Said enzymes catalyze the oxidation of NADH and/or NADPH and/or the reduction of NAD⁺ and/or NADP⁺—the enzyme may act as an oxidizing agent or as a reducing agent, depending on the reaction conditions. By way of example, the ratio of NAD⁺ to NADH and/or the ratio of NADP⁺ to NADPH may influence the direction of the reaction i.e. whether the enzyme acts as a reducing agent or oxidizing agent. In one embodiment, the second electron transfer component comprises or consists of a hydrogenase in which case, the H₂ concentration may also influence the way the reaction proceeds. Suitable reaction conditions for regeneration of each of the above-mentioned cofactors are described below. Thus, in one embodiment, said NADH:acceptor oxido-reductase or NADPH:acceptor oxidoreductase may act as an oxidizing agent and/or a reducing agent.

In one embodiment, said NADH:acceptor oxido-reductase or NADPH:acceptor oxidoreductase comprises or consists of an amino acid sequence having at least 20% (such as at least 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 85%, 88%, 90% 92%, 94%, 96%, 98%, 99% or 100%) sequence identity to the amino acid sequence of Ralstonia eutropha diaphorase HoxF (SEQ ID NO: 1) and/or an amino acid sequence having at least 20% (such as at least 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 85%, 88%, 90% 92%, 94%, 96%, 98%, 99% or 100%) sequence identity to the amino acid sequence of Ralstonia eutropha diaphorase HoxU (SEQ ID NO: 2).

In one embodiment, said NADH:acceptor oxido-reductase or NADPH:acceptor oxidoreductase comprises or consists of an amino acid sequence having at least 20% (such as at least 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 85%, 88%, 90% 92%, 94%, 96%, 98%, 99% or 100%) sequence identity to the amino acid sequence of Ralstonia eutropha diaphorase HoxF (SEQ ID NO: 1) and/or an amino acid sequence having at least 20% (such as at least 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 85%, 88%, 90% 92%, 94%, 96%, 98%, 99% or 100%) sequence identity to the amino acid sequence of Ralstonia eutropha diaphorase HoxU (SEQ ID NO: 2) and/or an amino acid sequence having at least 20% (such as at least 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 85%, 88%, 90% 92%, 94%, 96%, 98%, 99% or 100%) sequence identity to the amino acid sequence of Ralstonia eutropha diaphorase Hoxl (SEQ ID NO: 3).

In one embodiment, the NADH:acceptor oxido-reductase or NADPH:acceptor oxidoreductase may comprise or consist of flavoprotein (Fp) subcomplex of Complex I of Bos taurus (SEQ ID NO: 4 and/or SEQ ID NO: 5). Thus, in one embodiment, said NADH:acceptor oxido-reductase or NADPH:acceptor oxidoreductase comprises or consists of an amino acid sequence having at least 70% (such as at least 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 98%, 99% or 100%) sequence identity to the amino acid sequence of the 51 kDa protein of Bos taurus Complex I (SEQ ID NO: 4) and/or an amino acid sequence having at least 70% (such as at least 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 98%, 99% or 100%) sequence identity to the amino acid sequence of the 24 kDa subcomplex of Bos taurus Complex I (SEQ ID NO: 5).

In another embodiment, said NADH:acceptor oxido-reductase or NADPH:acceptor oxidoreductase comprises or consists of an amino acid sequence having at least 70% (such as at least 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 98%, 99% or 100%) sequence identity to the amino acid sequence of R. eutropha NAD⁺-dependent formate dehydrogenase diaphorase moiety FdsB (SEQ ID NO: 6) and/or an amino acid sequence having at least 70% (such as at least 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 98%, 99% or 100%) sequence identity to the amino acid sequence of the R. eutropha NAD⁺-dependent formate dehydrogenase diaphorase moiety FdsG (SEQ ID NO: 7).

In another embodiment, said NADH:acceptor oxido-reductase or NADPH:acceptor oxidoreductase comprises or consists of an amino acid sequence having at least 70% (such as at least 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 98%, 99% or 100%) sequence identity to the amino acid sequence of the NADPH oxidoreductase moiety from Pyrococcus furiosus soluble hydrogenase I gamma subunit (SEQ ID NO: 8) and/or an amino acid sequence having at least 70% (such as at least 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 98%, 99% or 100%) sequence identity to the amino acid sequence of the NADPH oxidoreductase moiety from Pyrococcus furiosus soluble hydrogenase I beta subunit (SEQ ID NO: 9).

In another embodiment, said NADH:acceptor oxido-reductase or NADPH:acceptor oxidoreductase comprises or consists of an amino acid sequence having at least 70% (such as at least 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 98%, 99% or 100%) sequence identity to the amino acid sequence of the NADPH oxidoreductase moiety from Pyrococcus furiosus soluble hydrogenase II gamma subunit (SEQ ID NO: 10) and/or an amino acid sequence having at least 70% (such as at least 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 98%, 99% or 100%) sequence identity to the amino acid sequence of the NADPH oxidoreductase moiety from Pyrococcus furiosus soluble hydrogenase II beta subunit (SEQ ID NO: 11).

In one embodiment, said NADH:acceptor oxido-reductase or NADPH:acceptor oxidoreductase comprises or consists of an amino acid sequence having at least 70% (such as at least 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 98%, 99% or 100%) sequence identity to the amino acid sequence of the diaphorase moiety of Rhodococcus opacus soluble hydrogenase HoxF (SEQ ID NO: 12), and/or an amino acid sequence having at least 70% (such as at least 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 98%, 99% or 100%) sequence identity to the amino acid sequence of the diaphorase moiety of Rhodococcus opacus soluble hydrogenase HoxU (SEQ ID NO: 13).

In another embodiment, said NADH:acceptor oxido-reductase or NADPH:acceptor oxidoreductase comprises or consists of an amino acid sequence having at least 70% (such as at least 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 98%, 99% or 100%) sequence identity to the amino acid sequence of the diaphorase moiety of Allochromatium vinosum soluble hydrogenase HoxF (SEQ ID NO: 14), and/or an amino acid sequence having at least 70% (such as at least 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 98%, 99% or 100%) sequence identity to the amino acid sequence of the diaphorase moiety of Allochromatium vinosum soluble hydrogenase HoxU (SEQ ID NO: 15).

In another embodiment, said NADH:acceptor oxido-reductase or NADPH:acceptor oxidoreductase comprises or consists of an amino acid sequence having at least 70% (such as at least 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 98%, 99% or 100%) sequence identity to the amino acid sequence of the diaphorase moiety of Thiocapsa roseopersicina Hox1F (SEQ ID NO: 16), and/or an amino acid sequence having at least 70% (such as at least 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 98%, 99% or 100%) sequence identity to the amino acid sequence of the diaphorase moiety of Thiocapsa roseopersicina soluble hydrogenase Hox1U (SEQ ID NO: 17).

In one embodiment, said NADH:acceptor oxido-reductase or NADPH:acceptor oxidoreductase comprises or consists of an amino acid sequence having at least 70% (such as at least 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 98%, 99% or 100%) sequence identity to the amino acid sequence of the diaphorase moiety of Thiocapsa roseopersicina Hox2F (SEQ ID NO: 18), and/or an amino acid sequence having at least 70% (such as at least 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 98%, 99% or 100%) sequence identity to the amino acid sequence of the diaphorase moiety of Thiocapsa roseopersicina soluble hydrogenase Hox2U (SEQ ID NO: 19).

In another embodiment, said NADH:acceptor oxido-reductase or NADPH:acceptor oxidoreductase comprises or consists of an amino acid sequence having at least 70% (such as at least 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 98%, 99% or 100%) sequence identity to the amino acid sequence of the diaphorase moiety of Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 HoxF (SEQ ID NO: 20), and/or an amino acid sequence having at least 70% (such as at least 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 98%, 99% or 100%) sequence identity to the amino acid sequence of the diaphorase moiety of Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 HoxU (SEQ ID NO: 21).

In one embodiment, said NADH:acceptor oxido-reductase or NADPH:acceptor oxidoreductase comprises or consists of an amino acid sequence having at least 70% (such as at least 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 98%, 99% or 100%) sequence identity to the amino acid sequence of the diaphorase moiety of Synechococcus elongates PCC 6301 HoxF (SEQ ID NO: 22), and/or an amino acid sequence having at least 70% (such as at least 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 98%, 99% or 100%) sequence identity to the amino acid sequence of the diaphorase moiety of Synechococcus elongates PCC 6301 HoxU (SEQ ID NO: 23).

In one embodiment, said NADH:acceptor oxido-reductase or NADPH:acceptor oxidoreductase comprises or consists of an amino acid sequence having at least 70% (such as at least 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 98%, 99% or 100%) sequence identity to the amino acid sequence of the diaphorase moiety of Rhodobacter capsulatus SB1003 formate dehydrogenase beta subunit FdsB (SEQ ID NO: 66), and/or an amino acid sequence having at least 70% (such as at least 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 98%, 99% or 100%) sequence identity to the amino acid sequence of the diaphorase moiety of Rhodobacter capsulatus SB1003 formate dehydrogenase gamma subunit FdsG (SEQ ID NO: 67)

Conventional methods for determining amino acid sequence identity are discussed in more detail later in the specification.

In one embodiment, the cofactor regeneration system comprises one or more (such as two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, or ten or more) different NADH:acceptor oxido-reductase or NADPH:acceptor oxidoreductases. All of the above mentioned NADH:acceptor oxido-reductases or NADPH:acceptor oxidoreductases are suitable in this regard. Any combination of the above-mentioned NADH:acceptor oxido-reductases or NADPH:acceptor oxidoreductases may be employed in the first electron transfer component of the present invention.

The first electron transfer component of the present invention may comprise or consist of one or more (such as two, three, four, five, six, seven or more) polypeptides in addition to the NADH:acceptor oxido-reductase or NADPH:acceptor oxidoreductase. In one embodiment, the first electron transfer component further comprises or consists of a polypeptide having at least 70% (such as at least 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 98%, 99% or 100%) sequence identity to the amino acid sequence of Ralstonia eutropha soluble hydrogenase moiety HoxHY (SEQ ID NOs: 24 and/or 25). In one embodiment said HoxH sequence (SEQ ID NO: 24) is selected from Ralstonia eutropha soluble hydrogenase moiety variant HoxH_I64A (SEQ ID NO: 68). Said variant contains a substitution in the active site of the enzyme, which renders it non-functional. Without wishing to be bound by theory, the present inventors believe that the presence of a HoxHY component in the first electron transfer component increases the stability of the NADH:acceptor oxido-reductase or NADPH:acceptor oxidoreductase leading to increased efficiency/activity of the system. Additional methods for increasing the stability of proteins/protein complexes are known in the art, and may be routinely employed by a skilled person in connection with the present invention.

In one embodiment, the first electron transfer component of the present invention may comprise or consist of a HoxHYFU tetramer, such as the HoxHYFU tetramer of Ralstonia eutropha (i.e. SEQ ID NOs: 24, 25, 1, 2). Thus, in one embodiment, the first electron component of the present invention comprises or consists of an amino acid sequence having at least 70% (such as at least 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 98%, 99% or 100%) sequence identity to the amino acid sequence of a Ralstonia eutropha HoxHYFU tetramer (SEQ ID NOs: 24, 25, 1, 2).

The invention also provides for individual components, such as the first and second electron transfer components, and an electronically conducting surface for use in the cofactor regeneration system of the invention.

Thus, in one aspect, the invention provides a Ralstonia eutropha diaphorase variant, wherein said diaphorase variant comprises or consists of an amino acid sequence having at least 70% (such as at least 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 98%) and less than 100% (such as less than 99%, 98%, 97%, 96%, 95%, 90%, 85%, 80%, 75%) sequence identity to the amino acid sequence of Ralstonia eutropha diaphorase HoxF (SEQ ID NO: 1), and/or an amino acid sequence having at least 70% (such as at least 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 98%) and less than 100% (such as less than 99%, 98%, 97%, 96%, 95%, 90%, 85%, 80%, 75%) sequence identity to the amino acid sequence of Ralstonia eutropha diaphorase HoxU (SEQ ID NO: 2), and/or an amino acid sequence having at least 70% (such as at least 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 98%) and less than 100% (such as less than 99%, 98%, 97%, 96%, 95%, 90%, 85%, 80%, 75%) sequence identity to the amino acid sequence of Ralstonia eutropha diaphorase Hoxl (SEQ ID NO: 3).

In one embodiment, the cofactor regeneration system of the present invention comprises the Ralstonia eutropha HoxF diaphorase variants described herein. In particular, the first electron transfer component of the cofactor regeneration system described herein embraces the diaphorase variants of the present invention.

In one embodiment, the diaphorase variant has an increased catalytic activity for NAD⁺ and/or NADP⁺ reduction and/or NADH and/or NADPH oxidation compared to Ralstonia eutropha diaphorase comprising or consisting of SEQ ID NO:1 and/or SEQ ID NO: 2 and/or SEQ ID NO: 3. In one embodiment, catalytic activity may embrace K_(M) and/or k_(cat). In one embodiment, increased catalytic activity embraces increased affinity, and/or reduction and/or oxidation capacity for NAD⁺, NADP⁺, NADH and/or NADPH.

In one embodiment, the diaphorase variant has an increased catalytic activity (k_(cat) and/or K_(M)) for NADP⁺ reduction and/or NADPH oxidation compared to Ralstonia eutropha diaphorase comprising or consisting of SEQ ID NO:1 and/or SEQ ID NO: 2 and/or SEQ ID NO: 3. In one embodiment, the catalytic activity of said diaphorase for NADP⁺ and/or NADPH is increased by a factor of at least 5 (such as at least 5, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 100, 200, 300, 400, 600, 800, 1000, 5000, 10000 or 100000). In one embodiment, the catalytic activity of said diaphorase for NADP⁺ and/or NADPH is increased by a factor of between 5-100000.

In one embodiment, the diaphorase variant has an increased catalytic activity (k_(cat) and/or K_(M)) for NAD⁺ reduction and/or NADH oxidation compared to Ralstonia eutropha diaphorase comprising or consisting of SEQ ID NO:1 and/or SEQ ID NO: 2 and/or SEQ ID NO: 3. In one embodiment, the catalytic activity of said diaphorase for NAD⁺ and/or NADH is increased by a factor of at least 5 (such as at least 5, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 100, 200, 300, 400, 600, 800, 1000, 5000, 10000 or 100000). In one embodiment, the catalytic efficiency of said diaphorase for NAD⁺ and/or NADH is increased by a factor of between 5-100000.

The Michaelis constant K_(M) is a standard means of characterising an enzyme's affinity for a substrate. K_(M) represents the concentration of substrate at which the enzyme has half of its maximum activity. In other words, a low K_(M) indicates that the enzyme reaches half of its maximum activity at low levels of substrate. It is understood by those skilled in the art, that the K_(M) value decreases as affinity increases. Thus, an increase in affinity is characterised by a decrease in the K_(M) value. In one embodiment, the K_(M) of said diaphorase variant for NADP⁺ and/or NAD⁺ and/or NADPH and/or NADH is reduced compared to the wild-type Ralstonia eutropha diaphorase comprising or consisting of SEQ ID NO:1 and/or SEQ ID NO: 2 and/or SEQ ID NO: 3.

Methods for measuring affinity (K_(M)) are routine to those skilled in the art. Briefly, affinity of the diaphorase for NADH and/or NADPH can be measured under anaerobic conditions at 30° C. in 50 mM Tris-HCl buffer, pH 8.0, containing 1 mM NADH or 1 mM NADPH, 5 mM benzyl viologen (oxidized), 90 μM dithionite, and 10 to 50 μmol of enzyme. The absorption is monitored spectrophotometrically at 578 nm (ε=8.9 mM⁻¹ cm⁻¹ for benzyl viologen). Individual data points of the activity measurements are used for the determination of K_(M) by non linear regression. An electrochemical method can be used to determine K_(M). Briefly, the diaphorase moiety is adsorbed onto a pyrolytic graphite electrode which is immersed in an electrochemical cell solution containing buffered electrolyte (eg 50 mM phosphate at pH 7.0). The electrode is held at a constant potential of −412 mV while the concentration of NAD⁺ or NADP⁺ is increased by injections into the solution. Since the electrocatalytic current magnitude recorded at the electrode is directly proportional to catalytic activity of the immobilised enzyme film, a plot of (substrate concentration)/(current magnitude) vs (substrate concentration) is analogous to a Hanes or Woolf plot of (substrate concentration)/(activity) vs (substrate concentration), and the intercept on the (substrate concentration) axis is equal to (−K_(M)). k_(cat) is the catalytic conversion of product under optimum conditions with substrate saturated enzyme. [L. Lauterbach, Z. Idris, K. A. Vincent, O. Lenz “Catalytic properties of the isolated diaphorase fragment of the NAD⁺-reducing [NiFe]-hydrogenase from Ralstonia eutropha” PLoS ONE doi:10.1371/joumal.pone.0025939.]

An improved affinity (lower K_(M)) of the diaphorase variant for NADPH and/or NADP⁺ indicates an improved catalytic activity for oxidation/reduction of NADPH/NADP⁺. Thus, in one embodiment, reference herein to increased or improved affinity also embraces an increased or improved oxidation/reduction activity. Thus, in one embodiment the diaphorase variant has an increased and/or improved oxidation/reduction activity when compared to wild-type Ralstonia eutropha diaphorase comprising or consisting of SEQ ID NO:1 and/or SEQ ID NO: 2 and/or SEQ ID NO:3.

The turnover number kcat gives a measure of the number of substrate molecules turned over per enzyme moiety per second. An improved turnover number kcat of the diaphorase variants for NADP⁺ and/or NAD⁺ and/or NADPH and/or NADH indicates an increased frequency for oxidation of NADPH and/or NADH and/or reduction of NAD⁺ and/or NADP⁺. In one embodiment, the diaphorase variant has an increased turnover number (k_(cat)) for NAD⁺, NADP⁺, NADH and/or NADPH compared to Ralstonia eutropha diaphorase comprising or consisting of SEQ ID NO:1 and/or SEQ ID NO: 2 and/or SEQ ID NO:3.

An improved turnover number (k_(cat)) of the diaphorase variant for NADPH and/or NADP⁺ indicates an improved catalytic activity for oxidation/reduction of NADPH/NADP⁺. Thus, in one embodiment, reference herein to increased turnover number kcat also embraces an increased or improved oxidation/reduction capacity. Thus, in one embodiment the diaphorase variant has an increased and/or improved oxidation/reduction capacity when compared to wild-type Ralstonia eutropha diaphorase comprising or consisting of SEQ ID NO:1 and/or SEQ ID NO: 2 and/or SEQ ID NO:3.

An improved turnover number (k_(cat)) of the diaphorase variant for NADH and/or NAD⁺indicates an improved catalytic activity for oxidation/reduction of NADH/NAD⁺. Thus, in one embodiment, reference herein to increased turnover number k_(cat) also embraces an increased or improved oxidation/reduction capacity. Thus, in one embodiment the diaphorase variant has an increased and/or improved oxidation/reduction capacity when compared to wild-type Ralstonia eutropha diaphorase comprising or consisting of SEQ ID NO:1 and/or SEQ ID NO: 2 and/or SEQ ID NO:3.

In one embodiment, said diaphorase variant comprises or consists of an amino acid sequence having at least 70% (such as at least 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 98%, 99% or 100%) sequence identity to the amino acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs: 54-65==and/or an amino acid having at least 70% (such as at least 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 98%, 99%, 100%) sequence identity to the amino acid sequence of Ralstonia eutropha diaphorase HoxU (SEQ ID NO: 2), and/or an amino acid having at least 70% (such as at least 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 98%, 99%, 100%) sequence identity to the amino acid sequence of Ralstonia eutropha diaphorase Hoxl (SEQ ID NO: 3).

In one embodiment, said diaphorase variant comprises or consists of an amino acid sequence which differs from the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:1 at position 326 by having an amino acid selected from the group consisting of K (lysine), S (serine), A (alanine), N (asparagine), R (arginine) or H (histidine). In one embodiment, the amino acid is K (lysine), and this diaphorase variant corresponds to SEQ ID NO: 54.

In another embodiment, said diaphorase variant comprises or consists of an amino acid sequence which differs from the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:1 at position 401 by having an amino acid selected from the group consisting of K (lysine), S (serine), A (alanine), N (asparagine) R (arginine) or H (histidine). In one embodiment, the amino acid is K (lysine), and this diaphorase variant corresponds to SEQ ID NO: 55.

In another embodiment, said diaphorase variant comprises or consists of an amino acid sequence which differs from the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:1 at position 467 by having an amino acid selected from the group consisting of S (serine), K (lysine), A (alanine), N (asparagine), R (arginine) or H (histidine). In one embodiment, the amino acid is S (serine), and this diaphorase variant corresponds to SEQ ID NO: 56.

In another embodiment, said diaphorase variant comprises or consists of an amino acid sequence which differs from the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:1 at position 340 by having an amino acid selected from the group consisting of A (alanine), K (lysine), S (serine), N (asparagine), R (arginine) or H (histidine). In one embodiment, the amino acid is A (alanine), and this diaphorase variant corresponds to SEQ ID NO: 57.

In another embodiment, said diaphorase variant comprises or consists of an amino acid sequence which differs from the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:1 at position 341 by having an amino acid selected from the group consisting of A (alanine), K (lysine), S (serine), N (asparagine), R (arginine) or H (histidine). In one embodiment, the amino acid is A (alanine), and this diaphorase variant corresponds to SEQ ID NO: 58. In another embodiment, the amino acid is H (histidine), and this diaphorase variant corresponds to SEQ ID NO: 65.

In one embodiment, the diaphorase variant of the present invention comprises or consists of an amino acid sequence which differs from the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:1 at one or more (such as 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6) amino acid positions. In other words, said amino acid sequence may have mutations (e.g. substitutions and/or deletions), such as one or more (such as 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6) of the above-mentioned amino acid mutations.

By way of example, SEQ ID NO 59 differs from the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:1 at positions 340 and 341 by having A (alanine) amino acid substitutions at said positions. SEQ ID NO 60 has amino acid substitutions at positions 340 (alanine) and 401 (lysine). SEQ ID NO 61 has amino acid substitutions at positions 326 (lysine) and 401 (lysine). SEQ ID NO 62 has amino acid substitutions at positions 467 (serine) and 401 (lysine). SEQ ID NO 63 has amino acid substitutions at positions 340 (asparagine) and 467 (serine). SEQ ID NO 64 has amino acid substitutions at positions 341 (alanine) and 467 (serine).

The above-mentioned variants advantageously have a greater affinity and/or turnover number for NADP⁺/NADPH and therefore have an improved NADP⁺/NADPH catalytic activity compared to Ralstonia eutropha diaphorase HoxF and/or HoxU and/or Hoxl (SEQ ID NO: 1 and/or SEQ ID NO:2 and/or SEQ ID NO:3). Other diaphorase variants embraced by the present invention include variants comprising amino acid substitutions and/or deletions which serve to decrease the negative charges surrounding the active site and/or increase the positive charges surrounding the active site. Without wishing to be bound by theory, the Inventors believe that such variants advantageously are able to accommodate the additional negatively charged phosphate group of NADP⁺ resulting in an improvement in affinity and/or oxidation and/or reduction capacity of the diaphorase variant compared to the wild-type diaphorase.

In one embodiment, the second electron transfer component of the cofactor regeneration system of the present invention comprises or consists of a hydrogenase moiety, wherein said hydrogenase moiety comprises or consists of an amino acid sequence having at least 70% (such as at least 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 98%, 99% or 100%) sequence identity to the amino acid sequence of Ralstonia eutropha soluble hydrogenase moiety (SEQ ID NOs: 24 and/or 25).

In one embodiment, the second electron transfer component of the cofactor regeneration system of the present invention comprises or consists of a hydrogenase moiety, wherein said hydrogenase moiety comprises or consists of an amino acid sequence having at least 70% (such as at least 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 98%, 99% or 100%) sequence identity to the amino acid sequence of Ralstonia eutropha membrane-bound hydrogenase moiety (SEQ ID NOs: 26 and/or 27 and/or 28).

In another embodiment, said hydrogenase moiety may comprise or consist of an amino acid sequence having at least 70% (such as at least 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 98%, 99% or 100%) sequence identity to the amino acid sequence of Ralstonia eutropha regulatory hydrogenase moiety (SEQ ID NOs: 29, and/or 30).

In another embodiment, said hydrogenase moiety may comprise or consist of an amino acid sequence having at least 70% (such as at least 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 98%, 99% or 100%) sequence identity to the amino acid sequence of Escherichia coli hydrogenase 1 (SEQ ID NOs:31 and/or 32).

In another embodiment, said hydrogenase moiety may comprise or consist of an amino acid sequence having at least 70% (such as at least 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 98%, 99% or 100%) sequence identity to the amino acid sequence of Escherichia coli hydrogenase 2 (SEQ ID NOs:33 and/or 34).

In another embodiment, said hydrogenase moiety may comprise or consist of an amino acid sequence having at least 70% (such as at least 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 98%, 99% or 100%) sequence identity to the amino acid sequence of Aquifex aeolicus hydrogenase 1 (SEQ ID NO:35 and/or 36).

In another embodiment, said hydrogenase moiety may comprise or consist of an amino acid sequence having at least 70% (such as at least 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 98%, 99% or 100%) sequence identity to the amino acid sequence of Hydrogenovibrio marinus hydrogenase (SEQ ID NOs: 37 and/or 38).

In another embodiment, said hydrogenase moiety may comprise or consist of an amino acid sequence having at least 70% (such as at least 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 98%, 99% or 100%) sequence identity to the amino acid sequence of Thiocapsa roseopersicina hydrogenase (SEQ ID NOs: 39 and 40).

In another embodiment, said hydrogenase moiety may comprise or consist of an amino acid sequence having at least 70% (such as at least 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 98%, 99% or 100%) sequence identity to the amino acid sequence of Alteromonas macleodii hydrogenase (SEQ ID NOs:41 and/or 42).

In another embodiment, said hydrogenase moiety may comprise or consist of an amino acid sequence having at least 70% (such as at least 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 98%, 99% or 100%) sequence identity to the amino acid sequence of Rhodococcus opacus soluble hydrogenase moiety (SEQ ID NOs: 43 and/or 44).

In another embodiment, said hydrogenase moiety may comprise or consist of an amino acid sequence having at least 70% (such as at least 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 98%, 99% or 100%) sequence identity to the amino acid sequence of Allochromatium vinosum membrane bound hydrogenase (SEQ ID NOs: 45 and/or 46).

In another embodiment, said hydrogenase moiety may comprise or consist of an amino acid sequence having at least 70% (such as at least 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 98%, 99% or 100%) sequence identity to the amino acid sequence of Desulfovibrio fructosovorans membrane bound hydrogenase (SEQ ID NOs: 47 and/20 or 48).

In another embodiment, said hydrogenase moiety may comprise or consist of an amino acid sequence having at least 70% (such as at least 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 98%, 99% or 100%) sequence identity to the amino acid sequence of Clostridium pasteurianum iron-iron hydrogenase (SEQ ID NOs: 49).

In another embodiment, said hydrogenase moiety may comprise or consist of an amino acid sequence having at least 70% (such as at least 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 98%, 99% or 100%) sequence identity to the amino acid sequence of Clostridium acetobutylicum iron-iron hydrogenase (SEQ ID NOs: 50).

In another embodiment, said hydrogenase moiety may comprise or consist of an amino acid sequence having at least 70% (such as at least 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 98%, 99% or 100%) sequence identity to the amino acid sequence of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii iron-iron hydrogenase (SEQ ID NOs: 51).

In another embodiment, said hydrogenase moiety may comprise or consist of an amino acid sequence having at least 70% (such as at least 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 98%, 99% or 100%) sequence identity to the amino acid sequence of Desulfomicrobium baculatum nickel-iron selenium hydrogenase (SEQ ID NOs: 52 and/or 53).

In another embodiment, said hydrogenase moiety may comprise or consist of an amino acid sequence having at least 70% (such as at least 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 98%, 99% or 100%) sequence identity to the amino acid sequence of Desulfovibrio vulgaris Nickel Iron hydrogenase pdb 1H₂A (SEQ ID NOs: 69 and/or 70).

In another embodiment, said hydrogenase moiety may comprise or consist of an 20 amino acid sequence having at least 70% (such as at least 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 98%, 99% or 100%) sequence identity to the amino acid sequence of Desulfovibrio gigas Periplasmic [NiFe] hydrogenase (SEQ ID NOs: 71 and/or 72).

In one embodiment of the present invention, the second electron transfer component is a hydrogenase moiety, wherein said hydrogenase moiety does not comprise (or lacks) a flavin mononucleotide (FMN) prosthetic group and/or a flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) prosthetic group. In one embodiment of the present invention, the hydrogenase moiety which does not comprise (or lacks) a FMN group and/or FAD group has increased stability compared to a hydrogenase comprising a FMN and/or a FAD group. Accordingly, use of such a hydrogenase (i.e. lacking a FMN and/or FAD prosthetic group) as the second electron transfer component in a cofactor regeneration system of the present invention may be advantageous because it increases the robustness/stability of the overall system. Examples of hydrogenases lacking a FMN prosthetic group include Ralstonia eutropha membrane-bound hydrogenase (SEQ ID NOs: 26-28), Ralstonia eutropha regulatory hydrogenase (SEQ ID NOs:29-30), Escherichia coli hydrogenase 1 (SEQ ID NOs:31-32), Escherichia coli hydrogenase 2 (SEQ ID NOs:33-34), Aquifex aeolicus hydrogenase 1 (SEQ ID NOs:35-36), Hydrogenovibrio marinus membrane-bound hydrogenase (SEQ ID NOs: 37-38), Desulfovibrio vulgaris Nickel Iron hydrogenase (SEQ ID NOs: 69-70) and Desulfovibrio gigas Periplasmic [NiFe] hydrogenase (SEQ ID NOs:71-72).

In one embodiment, the second electron transfer component comprises or consists of non-biological nanoparticles. Suitable non-biological nanoparticles include metal nanoparticles (such as platinum or palladium nanoparticles), or nanoparticles of a metal oxide, or nanoparticles of a metal sulphide (such as molybdenum disulfide). The non-biological nanoparticles of the present invention are able to catalyse the interconversion of H⁺ and H₂ close to the thermodynamic potential of the 2H⁺/H₂ couple under the experimental conditions. For example, the 2H⁺/H₂ couple potential is −0.413 V at 25° C., pH 7.0 and 1 bar H₂. In one embodiment, the second electron transfer component (i.e. the non-biological nanoparticles and/or the hydrogenase) operates in H2 oxidation at less than 100 mV more positive than the 2H⁺/H₂ couple potential, and/or operates in H+ reduction at less than 100 mV more negative than the 2H⁺/H₂ couple potential. Methods for determining overpotential are routine to those skilled in the art. Briefly, the catalyst (hydrogenase or non-biological nanoparticle) is attached to an electrode such that the catalyst can exchange electrons directly with the electrode. The electrode is immersed in an electrochemical cell solution containing buffered electrolyte (for example 50 mM phosphate at pH 7.0) saturated with H₂ (ie in equilibrium with a gas atmosphere comprising 100% H₂) and the electrode potential is cycled between lower and upper limiting potentials, eg −0.6 V vs the standard hydrogen electrode (SHE) and 0.2 V vs SHE. A catalyst which operates at minimal overpotential shows an electrocatalytic H⁺ reduction current and/or an electrocatalytic H₂ oxidation current close to (ie within 100 mV below or above) the thermodynamic potential of the 2H⁺/H₂ couple under the experimental conditions. For example, the 2H⁺/H₂ couple potential is −0.413 Vat 25° C., pH 7.0 and 1 bar H₂ or −0.36 V at 30° C., pH 6.0 and 1 bar H₂. Reference: Vincent, K. A., Parkin, A., Lenz, O., Albracht, S. P. J., Fontecilla-Camps, J. C., Cammack, R., Friedrich, B., Armstrong, F. A., ‘Electrochemical Definitions of O₂ Sensitivity and Oxidative Inactivation in Hydrogenases’ Journal of the American Chemical Society (2005) 127, 18179-18189.

In one embodiment of the present invention, the first and second electron transfer components do not occur together in nature as an enzyme complex. In other words, the first and second transfer components are not naturally associated with each other, and said first and second electron transfer components do not transfer electrons to and/or accept electrons from each other in the “natural” cellular environment. First and second electron transfer components of the present invention are therefore selected from components which do not occur together in a wild-type enzyme complex.

Thus, by way of example, the first and second electron transfer components may be selected from (or derived from) different bacterial species or from different bacterial genera. In another embodiment, the first and second electron transfer components may be selected from (or derived from) the same bacterial genus or species, but said first and second electron transfer components are selected from (or derived from) different enzymes. Taking Ralstonia eutropha as an example, the first electron transfer component may comprise the diaphorase HoxF and/or HoxU, and/or HoxH and/or HoxY and/or Hoxl (SEQ ID NOs: 1 and/or 2, 24, 25 and/or 3). In this scenario, the second electron transfer component may comprise any suitable hydrogenase moiety such as the membrane bound hydrogenase moiety HoxGKZ (SEQ ID NOs: 26-28), or the regulatory hydrogenase moiety HoxBC (SEQ ID NOs: 29-30), but may not comprise the soluble hydrogenase moiety HoxHY (SEQ ID NOs: 24-25), which is normally associated with the diaphorase HoxFU. Thus, the individual components of the cofactor regeneration system can be tuned (by choice of different components of the system) for a specific application and/or condition(s). The Inventors have realized that by selecting components which are not naturally associated with each other in nature allows optimization of the cofactor regeneration system depending on the application/conditions. For example, an oxygen (O₂)—tolerant hydrogenase may be selected as the second electron transfer component if the cofactor regeneration system is used to supply cofactors to enzymes requiring O₂, such as cytochrome P450 monoxygenases.

In another aspect the invention provides a cofactor regeneration system comprising or consisting of:

-   -   i) a first electron transfer component selected from a         polypeptide comprising a diaphorase variant as described herein,         and     -   ii) a second electron transfer component selected from a         hydrogenase moiety and/or non-biological nanoparticles, and     -   iii) an electronically conducting surface;         wherein the first and second electron transfer components are         immobilised on the electrically conducting surface.

Suitable second electron transfer components i.e. hydrogenase moieties and non-biological particles are described above, and may be used in the present aspect of the invention.

As described herein, the cofactor regeneration system of the present invention may comprise an electronically conducting surface wherein the first and second electron transfer components are immobilised on the electronically conducting surface. In one embodiment, the term “immobilised” embraces adsorption, entrapment and/or cross-linkage. Adsorption generally relies on a non-covalent interaction. Thus, in one embodiment, the term “immobilised” refers to a non-covalent attachment. In another embodiment, the first and second electron transfer components are covalently bonded to the electronically conducting surface. Such an interaction may be referred to as “cross-linked” attachment. Entrapment refers to the first and second electron transfer components being trapped within the electronically conducting surface (e.g. because the electronically conducting surface is porous). Thus, in one embodiment, the term “immobilised” refers to entrapment. Entrapment may embrace non-covalent and/or covalent attachment. A combination of the above mentioned immobilisation means may also be used. In one embodiment, the electronically conducting surface of the present invention serves to transfer electrons between said first and second electron transfer components of the cofactor regeneration system.

In one embodiment, the electronically conducting surface of the cofactor regeneration system comprises or consists a carbon material, such as graphite particles, carbon nanotubes, carbon black, activated carbon, carbon nanopowder vitreous carbon (glassy carbon), carbon fibres, carbon cloth, carbon felt, carbon paper, graphene, glassy carbon, highly ordered pyrolytic graphite or edge oriented pyrolytic graphite;

Other suitable electronically conducting surface materials may comprise or consist of gold, silver, tungsten, iridium, metal oxide nanoparticles such as titanium oxide, indium oxide, tin oxide, indium tin oxide, and metal sulphide nanoparticles such as (boron) doped diamond. Electronically conducting surfaces combining one or more of the above-mentioned materials are also embraced by the present invention.

In one embodiment of the present invention, the cofactor regeneration system advantageously comprises or consists of particles (e.g. beads) which can easily be removed from a reaction mixture, for example by sedimentation, filtration and/or centrifugation. The cofactor regeneration system comprising said particles can therefore advantageously be readily separated from a reaction mixture (e.g. by sedimentation, filtration and/or centrifugation) and re-used. In another embodiment, if the electronically conducting surface utilised is carbon cloth, carbon felt, carbon paper, (or similar material) for example, then the cofactor regeneration system can be readily separated from a reaction mixture by simply removing said carbon cloth/felt or paper from said reaction mixture.

In one embodiment, the term ‘electronically conducting surface’ of the present invention embraces one or more electronically conducting surfaces (e.g. a carbon material as described herein) connected/coupled via an electronically conducting linker (e.g. a wire). By way of example, two carbon particles may be connected via said electronically conducting linker, with the first and second electron transfer components of the present invention immobilised on said carbon particles. The electronically conducting linker may be made from one of the non-carbon materials described herein (e.g. gold, silver, tungsten, iridium etc) or another metal such as copper or aluminium. In one embodiment, the first electron transfer component of the present invention is immobilised to an electronically conducting carbon surface and the second electron transfer component is attached to a second electronically conducting carbon surface, wherein said carbon surfaces are connected via an electronically conducting linker. In other words, the electronically conducting surface of the present invention embraces one or more electronically conducting surfaces (e.g. a carbon material as described herein) coupled/connected/inter-linked by an electronically conducting linker (e.g. a wire made of gold, silver, tungsten, iridium) or another metal such as copper or aluminium.

In one embodiment, the cofactor regeneration system of the present invention further comprises or consists of one or more cofactors selected from NAD⁺, NADH, NADP⁺ and/or NADPH.

In use, electrons flow between the first and second electron transfer components of the cofactor regeneration system of the present invention. In one embodiment, electrons flow from the first electron transfer component to the second transfer component. Alternatively, electrons may flow from the second transfer component to the first electron transfer component. In use, the flow of electrons may be reversed, depending on reaction conditions. In use, electrons may flow directly between the first and second electron transfer components or indirectly via the electronically conducting surface of the present invention.

In one embodiment, the cofactor regeneration system of the present invention further comprises an oxidoreductase selected from a dehydrogenase, reductase, oxidase, synthase, transhydrogenase, dioxygenase, mono-oxygenase cytochrome p450 monooxygenase and/or ene reductase. Variants, derivatives and functional fragments of the aforementioned oxidoreductases are also embraced by the present invention. In one embodiment, the cofactor regeneration system of the present invention further comprises a variant of the aforementioned oxidoreductases, wherein said variant retains at least some of the activity/functionality of the native/wild-type enzyme. In one embodiment, the variant oxidoreductase has increased/improved activity/functionality when compared to the native/wild-type enzyme.

In one embodiment said oxidoreductase selected from a dehydrogenase, reductase, oxidase, synthase, transhydrogenase, dioxygenase, mono-oxygenase, cytochrome p450 monooxygenase and/or ene reductase is immobilised on said electronically conducting surface. Suitable immobilisation methods are described above. Alternatively, the aforementioned oxidoreductases may be immobilised on a separate/distinct electronically conducting surface from the first and second electron transfer components of the cofactor regeneration system. In another embodiment, said oxidoreductases selected from a dehydrogenase, reductase, oxidase, synthase, transhydrogenase, dioxygenase, mono-oxygenase, cytochrome p450 monooxygenase and/or ene reductase are not immobilised, but are present in a solution containing the cofactor regeneration system of the present invention. This approach would be particularly suited to those proteins/protein complexes which cannot be readily be immobilised. By way of example, multi-redox component cytochrome P450 mono-oxygenases or dioxygenases may be provided in a solution with the cofactor regeneration system of the present invention.

In one aspect, the present invention provides a cofactor regeneration system and components thereof (as defined above) for use in a method for generating a cofactor.

In another aspect, the present invention provides a cofactor regeneration system and components thereof (as defined above) for use in a method for regenerating a cofactor.

Thus, in one aspect the invention provides a method for (re)generating a cofactor comprising or consisting of adding to the cofactor regeneration system described herein, a cofactor selected from NAD⁺, NADH, NADP⁺ and/or NADPH.

In one embodiment, the NADH, NAD, NADPH or NADP added is present at a concentration of 1 μM to 1M (such as 1 μM to 800 mM, 1 μM to 600 mM, 1 μM to 400 mM, 1 μM to 200 mM, 1 μM to 100 mM, 1 μM to 10 mM, or 1 μM to 1 mM). In another embodiment, the NADH, NAD, NADPH or NADP added is present at a concentration of 1 μM to 10 mM (such as 5 μM to 10 mM, 10 μM to 10 mM, 25 μM to 10 mM, 50 μM to 10 mM, 100 μM to 10 mM, 250 μM to 10 mM, 500 μM to 10 mM or 1 mM to 10 mM). In one embodiment, the NADH, NAD, NADPH or NADP added is present at a concentration of 0.2 mM or 1-2 mM.

In one embodiment, the invention provides a method for (re)generating NAD⁺comprising or consisting of: adding to the cofactor regeneration system described herein, NADH and a gas atmosphere comprising an inert gas. The NADH added may be present at a concentration of 1 μM to 1M (such as 1 μM to 800 mM, 1 μM to 600 mM, 1 μM to 400 mM, 1 μM to 200 mM, 1 μM to 100 mM, 1 μM to 10 mM, or 1 μM to 1 mM) or 1 μM to 10 mM (such as 5 μM to 10 mM, 10 μM to 10 mM, 25 μM to 10 mM, 50 μM to 10 mM, 100 μM to 10 mM, 250 μM to 10 mM, 500 μM to 10 mM or 1 mM to 10 mM). The inert gas may be selected, for example, from N₂ or Argon (Ar). In one embodiment the inert gas is present at a concentration of 80-100% (i.e. the gas is present in the headspace of a suitable container comprising the cofactor regeneration system)

In another embodiment, the invention provides a method for (re)generating NADH comprising or consisting of: adding to the cofactor regeneration system described herein, NAD⁺ and a gas atmosphere comprising H2 and O2. The NAD⁺ added may be present at a concentration of 1 μM to 1M (such as 1 μM to 800 mM, 1 μM to 600 mM, 1 μM to 400 mM, 1 μM to 200 mM, 1 μM to 100 mM, 1 μM to 10 mM, or 1 μM to 1 mM) or 1 μM to 10 mM (such as 5 μM to 10 mM, 10 μM to 10 mM, 25 μM to 10 mM, 50 μM to 10 mM, 100 μM to 10 mM, 250 μM to 10 mM, 500 μM to 10 mM or 1 mM to 10 mM). In one embodiment, the H₂ is present at a concentration of 1-100%, with the remaining gas comprising an inert gas. In one embodiment, the H₂ is present at a concentration of 80-100% and the O₂ is present at a concentration of 0-20% (i.e. the gas is present in the headspace of a suitable container comprising the cofactor regeneration system.). In another embodiment, the H₂ is present at a concentration of 1-4% and the O₂ is present at a concentration of 96-99% (i.e. the gas is present in the headspace of a suitable container comprising the cofactor regeneration system). In one embodiment, the H₂ is present at a concentration of 1-4% in air, or at a concentration of 70-99% in air.

In another embodiment, the invention provides a method for (re)generating NADP comprising or consisting of: adding to the cofactor regeneration system described herein, NADPH and a gas atmosphere comprising an inert gas. The NADPH added may be present at a concentration of 1 μM to 1M (such as 1 μM to 800 mM, 1 μM to 600 mM, 1 μM to 400 mM, 1 μM to 200 mM, 1 μM to 100 mM, 1 μM to 10 mM, or 1 μM to 1 mM) or 1 μM to 10 mM (such as 5 μM to 10 mM, 10 μM to 10 mM, 25 μM to 10 mM, 50 μM to 10 mM, 100 μM to 10 mM, 250 μM to 10 mM, 500 μM to 10 mM or 1 mM to 10 mM). The inert gas may be selected, for example, from N₂ or Argon (Ar). In one embodiment the inert gas is present at a concentration of 80-100% (i.e. the gas is present in the headspace of a suitable container comprising the cofactor regeneration system).

In another embodiment, the invention provides a method for (re)generating NADPH comprising or consisting of: adding to the cofactor regeneration system described herein, NADP⁺ and a gas atmosphere comprising H₂. The NADP⁺ added may be present at a concentration of 1 μM to 1M (such as 1 μM to 800 mM, 1 μM to 600 mM, 1 μM to 400 mM, 1 μM to 200 mM, 1 μM to 100 mM, 1 μM to 10 mM, or 1 μM to 1 mM) or 1 μM to 10 mM (such as 5 μM to 10 mM, 10 μM to 10 mM, 25 μM to 10 mM, 50 μM to 10 mM, 100 μM to 10 mM, 250 μM to 10 mM, 500 μM to 10 mM or 1 mM to 10 mM).). In one embodiment, the H₂ is present at a concentration of 1-100% (i.e. the gas is present in the headspace of a suitable container comprising the cofactor regeneration system). In one embodiment, the H₂ is present at a concentration of 80-100%. In one embodiment, the H₂ is present at less than 3%, such as 2% or 1%.

Other inert gases suitable for use in the methods of the present invention include Helium (He), Neon (Ne), Krypton (Kr), Xenon (Xe), Radon (Rn) and/or Sulfur hexafluoride (SF₆),In one embodiment, the gas phase in contact with the cofactor regeneration system of the present invention comprises or consists of one or more gases that are not considered inert gases. Examples of such ‘non-inert’ gases include ammonia (NH₃), carbon dioxide (CO2), and/or hydrogen sulphide (H₂S).

In one embodiment, the methods described herein further comprises or consists of harvesting the (re)generated cofactor by removing the cofactor regeneration particles by filtration or by centrifugation, or by allowing the particles to settle and decanting off the solution (i.e. sedimentation). Filtration methods are known to those skilled in the art, and any such method may be used. By way of example, a simple filter paper may be used to remove the cofactor regeneration particles.

In another aspect, the invention provides use of a cofactor regeneration system as described herein, or a diaphorase variant for use in a cofactor regeneration system of the present invention, for generating a cofactor.

In another aspect, the invention provides use of a cofactor regeneration system as described herein, or a diaphorase variant for use in a cofactor regeneration system of the present invention, for regenerating a cofactor.

In one embodiment, the invention provides use of a cofactor regeneration system or use of a diaphorase variant, as described herein, in a synthetic reaction. In one embodiment the synthetic reaction is an enzyme-catalyzed synthetic reaction. Suitable applications for the cofactor regeneration system of the present invention include synthetic processes wherein cofactor-dependent oxidoreductases are used as catalysts.

In another aspect, the invention provides a synthetic reaction comprising or consisting of the cofactor regeneration system as described herein, or the diaphorase variant as described herein.

In one embodiment, the synthetic reaction further comprises an oxidoreductase which is dependent on NAD+, NADH, NADP+ and/or NADPH. Examples of oxidoreductases include dehydrogenase, reductase, oxidase, synthase, transhydrogenase, dioxygenase, mono-oxygenase, cytochrome p450 monooxygenase and/or ene reductase.

In one embodiment, said oxidoreductase is immobilised on the electronically conducting surface of the present invention along with the first and second electron transfer components of the cofactor regeneration system of the present invention. Suitable methods for immobilisation have been described elsewhere in the present specification and apply equally hereto. Thus, immobilisation embraces covalent and non-covalent attachments including adsorption, entrapment and/or cross-linkage. Alternatively, the aforementioned oxidoreductases may be immobilised on a separate/distinct electronically conducting surface from the first and second electron transfer components of the cofactor regeneration system. In another embodiment, said oxidoreductases selected from a dehydrogenase, reductase, oxidase, synthase, transhydrogenase, dioxygenase, mono-oxygenase, cytochrome p450 monooxygenase and/or ene reductase are not immobilised, but are present in a solution containing the cofactor regeneration system of the present invention. This approach would be particularly suited to those proteins/protein complexes which cannot be readily be immobilised. By way of example, multi-redox component cytochrome P450 mono-oxygenases or dioxygenases may be provided in a solution with the cofactor regeneration system of the present invention

In one embodiment, the cofactor regeneration system of the present invention is employed to supply NADH to an NADH-dependant oxidoreductase (such as a NADH-dependent dehydrogenase) which is immobilised on the electronically conducting surface of the present invention (i.e. in addition to the first and second electron transfer components of the present invention).

In one embodiment, the cofactor regeneration system of the present invention is employed to supply NADH to an NADH-dependant oxidoreductase requiring O₂ (such as a NADH-dependent cytochrome P450 mono-oxygenase) which is immobilised on the electronically conducting surface of the present invention (i.e. in addition to the first and second electron transfer components of the present invention).

In one embodiment, the cofactor regeneration system of the present invention is employed to supply of NAD⁺ to an NAD⁺-dependant oxidoreductase (such as a NAD⁺-dependent dehydrogenase) which is immobilised on the electronically conducting surface of the present invention (i.e. in addition to the first and second electron transfer components of the present invention).

In one embodiment, the cofactor regeneration system of the present invention is employed to supply of NADP⁺ to an NADP⁺-dependant oxidoreductase (such as a NADP⁺-dependent aldehyde dehydrogenase) which is immobilised on the electronically conducting surface of the present invention (i.e. in addition to the first and second electron transfer components of the present invention).

In one embodiment, the cofactor regeneration system of the present invention is employed to supply of NADPH to an NADPH-dependent oxidoreductase (such as a NADPH-dependent carbonyl reductase or a NADPH-dependent cytochrome P450 mono-oxygenase) which is immobilised on the electronically conducting surface of the present invention (i.e. in addition to the first and second electron transfer components of the present invention).

In a further aspect, the invention provides a kit comprising or consisting of the cofactor regeneration system as described herein, or the diaphorase variant as described herein, and a cofactor selected from NAD⁺, NADH, NADP⁺ and/or NADPH. In one embodiment, the kit further comprises an oxidoreductase such as a dehydrogenase, a mono-oxygenase and/or a cytochrome p450 monooxygenase.

In another aspect of the present invention, there is provided a DNA sequence that encodes the first and/or second electron transfer components of the cofactor regeneration system of the present invention. In one embodiment, the present invention provides a DNA sequence of any of the SEQ ID NOs (i.e. any of SEQ ID NOs 1-72) representing the first and second electron transfer components described herein. In one embodiment, the DNA sequence is prepared as part of a DNA vector, wherein the vector comprises a promoter and terminator. In one embodiment, the vector has a promoter selected from:

Promoter Induction Agent Typical Induction Condition Tac (hybrid) IPTG 0.2 mM (0.05-2.0 mM) AraBAD L-arabinose 0.2% (0.002-0.4%) T7-lac operator IPTG 0.2 mM (0.05-2.0 mM) AcoE Acetoin 0.15% (0.05-0.5%) SH promoter self inducing during growth in Fructose-Glycerol-minimal medium

The DNA construct of the present invention may be designed in silico, and then synthesised by conventional DNA synthesis techniques.

The above-mentioned DNA sequence information is optionally modified for codon-biasing according to the ultimate host cell (e.g. E. coli) expression system that is to be employed.

Methods for expression of proteins in cellular (e.g. microbial) expression systems are well known and routine to those skilled in the art. In one embodiment, the first and second electron transfer components of the present inventions are encoded and expressed from the same vector in an appropriate host cell (e.g. a microbial cell, such as E. coli). In another embodiment, the first and second electron transfer components of the present invention are encoded and expressed from different/separate vectors in the same or different host cells. The extraction of the first and electron transfer components from said host cells post-expression can be achieved through routine methods known to those skilled in the art.

In one embodiment, the first and second electron transfer components of the present invention are expressed in the same host cell (e.g. a microbial host cell, such as E. coli) as an oxidoreductase selected from a dehydrogenase, reductase, oxidase, synthase, transhydrogenase, dioxygenase, mono-oxygenase, cytochrome p450 monooxygenase and/or ene reductase. Said oxidoreductase may be expressed from the same and/or a different/separate vector from the first and/or second electron transfer components.

Reeve, H. A., Lauterbach, L., Ash, P. A., Lenz, O., Vincent, K. A., ‘A modular system for regeneration of NAD cofactors using graphite particles modified with hydrogenase and diaphorase moieties’ Chem. Commun. 2012, 48 (10), 1589-1591 is incorporated herein, in its entirety, by reference thereto.

Definitions

Sequence Homology:

Any of a variety of sequence alignment methods can be used to determine percent identity, including, without limitation, global methods, local methods and hybrid methods, such as, e.g., segment approach methods. Protocols to determine percent identity are routine procedures within the scope of one skilled in the art. Global methods align sequences from the beginning to the end of the molecule and determine the best alignment by adding up scores of individual residue pairs and by imposing gap penalties. Non-limiting methods include, e.g., CLUSTAL W, see, e.g., Julie D. Thompson et al., CLUSTAL W: Improving the Sensitivity of Progressive Multiple Sequence Alignment Through Sequence Weighting, Position—Specific Gap Penalties and Weight Matrix Choice, 22(22) Nucleic Acids Research 4673-4680 (1994); and iterative refinement, see, e.g., Osamu Gotoh, Significant Improvement in Accuracy of Multiple Protein. Sequence Alignments by Iterative Refinement as Assessed by Reference to Structural Alignments, 264(4) J. Mol. Biol. 823-838 (1996). Local methods align sequences by identifying one or more conserved motifs shared by all of the input sequences. Non-limiting methods include, e.g., Match-box, see, e.g., Eric Depiereux and Ernest Feytmans, Match-Box: A Fundamentally New Algorithm for the Simultaneous Alignment of Several Protein Sequences, 8(5) CABIOS 501-509 (1992); Gibbs sampling, see, e.g., C. E. Lawrence et al., Detecting Subtle Sequence Signals: A Gibbs Sampling Strategy for Multiple Alignment, 262(5131) Science 208-214 (1993); Align-M, see, e.g., Ivo Van Walle et al., Align—M—A New Algorithm for Multiple Alignment of Highly Divergent Sequences, 20(9) Bioinformatics:1428-1435 (2004). Thus, percent sequence identity is determined by conventional methods. See, for example, Altschul et al., Bull. Math. Bio. 48: 603-16, 1986 and Henikoff and Henikoff, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89:10915-19, 1992. Briefly, two amino acid sequences are aligned to optimize the alignment scores using a gap opening penalty of 10, a gap extension penalty of 1, and the “blosum 62” scoring matrix of Henikoff and Henikoff (ibid.) as shown below (amino acids are indicated by the standard one-letter codes).

Alignment Scores for Determining Sequence Identity

A R N D C Q E G H I L K M F P S T W Y V A 4 R −1 5 N −2 0 6 D −2 −2 1 6 C 0 −3 −3 −3 9 Q −1 1 0 0 −3 5 E −1 0 0 2 −4 2 5 G 0 −2 0 −1 −3 −2 −2 6 H −2 0 1 −1 −3 0 0 −2 8 I −1 −3 −3 −3 −1 −3 −3 −4 −3 4 L −1 −2 −3 −4 −1 −2 −3 −4 −3 2 4 K −1 2 0 −1 −3 1 1 −2 −1 −3 −2 5 M −1 −1 −2 −3 −1 0 −2 −3 −2 1 2 −1 5 F −2 −3 −3 −3 −2 −3 −3 −3 −1 0 0 −3 0 6 P −1 −2 −2 −1 −3 −1 −1 −2 −2 −3 −3 −1 −2 −4 7 S 1 −1 1 0 −1 0 0 0 −1 −2 −2 0 −1 −2 −1 4 T 0 −1 0 −1 −1 −1 −1 −2 −2 −1 −1 −1 −1 −2 −1 1 5 W −3 −3 −4 −4 −2 −2 −3 −2 −2 −3 −2 −3 −1 1 −4 −3 −2 11 Y −2 −2 −2 −3 −2 −1 −2 −3 2 −1 −1 −2 −1 3 −3 −2 −2 2 7 V 0 −3 −3 −3 −1 −2 −2 −3 −3 3 1 −2 1 −1 −2 −2 0 −3 −1 4

The percent identity is then calculated as:

$\frac{\left( {{Total}\mspace{14mu} {number}\mspace{14mu} {of}\mspace{14mu} {identical}\mspace{14mu} {matches}} \right)}{\begin{bmatrix} {{length}\mspace{14mu} {of}\mspace{14mu} {the}\mspace{14mu} {longer}\mspace{14mu} {sequence}\mspace{14mu} {plus}\mspace{14mu} {the}\mspace{14mu} {number}} \\ {{of}\mspace{14mu} {gaps}\mspace{14mu} {introduced}\mspace{14mu} {into}\mspace{14mu} {the}\mspace{14mu} {longer}\mspace{14mu} {sequence}} \\ {{in}\mspace{14mu} {order}\mspace{14mu} {to}\mspace{14mu} {align}\mspace{14mu} {the}\mspace{14mu} {two}\mspace{14mu} {sequences}} \end{bmatrix}} \times 100$

“R” is the standard nomenclature for a degeneracy of A or G at this position in a nucleotide sequence.

The present invention will now be described, by way of example only, with reference to the accompanying Examples and Figures, in which:

FIG. 1 shows UV-visible spectra demonstrating generation of NADH from a solution of NAD⁺ (1 mM) saturated with H₂ by a cofactor regeneration system of the present invention consisting of pyrolytic graphite particles modified with Ralstonia eutropha soluble hydrogenase diaphorase domain (component (i)), and Escherichia coli hydrogenase 2 (component (ii)). The solution also contained potassium phosphate buffer, 50 mM, pH 7.0. The reaction was carried out at 20° C. The characteristic peak at 340 nm indicates NADH formation. Solid line: before addition of H₂; dashed line: 4.5 hours after addition of H₂.

FIG. 2 shows a UV-visible spectrum demonstrating generation of NADH from a solution of NAD⁺ (1 mM) saturated with a gas mixture of 99% H₂: 1% O₂ by a cofactor regeneration system of the present invention consisting of pyrolytic graphite particles modified with Ralstonia eutropha soluble hydrogenase HoxFU diaphorase domain (component (i)), and Ralstonia eutropha membrane-bound hydrogenase (component (ii)). The solution also contained potassium phosphate buffer, 50 mM, pH 7.0. The reaction was carried out at 20° C. The characteristic peak at 340 nm indicates NADH formation.

FIG. 3 shows a UV-visible spectrum demonstrating generation of NADH from a solution of NAD⁺ (2 mM) by a cofactor regeneration system of the present invention consisting of pyrolytic graphite particles modified with Ralstonia eutropha HoxFU (component (i)) and Escherichia coli hydrogenase-1 (component (ii)). A gas mixture of 1% O₂ and 99% H₂ was continually flowed through the head space of the reaction vial. The solution also contained bis-Tris buffer, 50 mM, pH 6. The reaction was carried out at 20° C. The peak at 340 nm indicates NADH formation.

FIG. 4 shows a plot of NADH concentration over time during generation of NAD⁺ from a solution of NADH(1 mM) saturated with N2 by a cofactor regeneration system of the present invention consisting of pyrolytic graphite particles modified with Escherichia coli hydrogenase 2 (component (ii)) and Ralstonia eutropha H₁₆ soluble hydrogenase diaphorase domain (HoxFU, component (i)). The solution also contained potassium phosphate buffer, 50 mM, pH 7.0. The reaction was carried out at 20° C. Samples were removed for analysis at the time points indicated. The concentration of NADH was determined by comparison of the ratio of absorbance at 260 nm to absorbance at 340 nm with the ratio for samples of known concentration ratio of NAD to NADH.

FIG. 5 shows UV-visible spectra demonstrating generation of NADH from a solution of NAD⁺ (0.8 mM) saturated with H₂ by a cofactor regeneration system of the present invention consisting of pyrolytic graphite particles first modified with platinum (component (ii)), and then with Ralstonia eutropha soluble hydrogenase diaphorase domain (component (i)). The solution also contained potassium phosphate buffer, 50 mM, pH 7.0. The reaction was carried out at 20° C. The characteristic peak at 340 nm indicates NADH formation.

FIG. 6 shows a cyclic voltammogram demonstrating the response of an unmodified electrode (upper two lines) and an electrode modified with the HoxFUHY tetramer of Ralstonia eutropha soluble hydrogenase bearing a site directed mutation in the NAD⁺ binding pocket which was intended to increase affinity for NADP⁺ (lower two lines). Reduction of NADP⁺ at minimal overpotential demonstrates the capacity for regenerating NADPH with electrons from H₂ using the cofactor regeneration system of the present invention with a variant of Ralstonia eutropha HoxFU diaphorase dimer in place of the native diaphorase dimer. The electrode is pyrolytic graphite ‘edge’, and is immersed in a solution containing 2 mM NADP⁺ in Tris-HCl buffer, pH 8.0, at 30° C.

FIG. 7 shows a schematic of NADH regeneration using electrons from H₂ by pyrolytic graphite (PG) particles modified with a diaphorase (HoxFU subunits of Ralstonia eutropha soluble hydrogenase, component (i)) and a hydrogenase or Pt (component (ii)); ▪ represents an iron sulfur electron relay cluster; * represents a catalytic active site. By appropriate choice of enzymes and conditions, the direction of catalysis can be reversed. In this schematic, NADH is supplied to an NADH-dependent oxidoreductase to support the transformation of substrate to product.

FIG. 8 shows that cofactor regeneration particles of the present invention can supply NADH to a cofactor dependent dehydrogenase. Attentuated Total Reflectance (ATR)-Infrared (IR) spectra of the supernatant solution before (dashed) and 7 hours after (solid) initiation by H₂ show conversion of pyruvate to lactate by lactate dehydrogenase (0.5 mg/ml). The dehydrogenase was supplied only with pyruvate (3 mM), NAD⁺ (0.2 mM) and pyrolytic graphite particles modified with HoxFU and E. coli Hydrogenase-2 in pH 7.0, 50 mM potassium phosphate buffer. ATR-IR spectra were recorded using a Bio-Rad FTS-6000 FTIR spectrometer equipped with a diamond attenuated total reflectance accessory (DurasampIIR II, SensIR Technologies). The peak at 1175 cm⁻¹ demonstrates pyruvate consumption. The peaks at 1120 cm⁻¹ and 1040 cm⁻¹ demonstrate lactate formation.

FIG. 9 shows a plot of NADH concentration over time during generation of NADH from a solution of NAD⁺ (1 mM) by a cofactor regeneration system of the present invention consisting of pyrolytic graphite particles modified with Ralstonia eutropha soluble hydrogenase diaphorase domain HoxFU (component (i)), and Escherichia coli hydrogenase 2 (component (ii)). o represents a data series from an experiment performed under a gas mixture of 99% N₂: 1% H₂ at 1 bar. ▪ represents a data series from an experiment performed under 100% H₂ at 1 bar. The solution also contained potassium phosphate buffer, 50 mM, pH 7.0. The reaction was carried out at 20° C. Aliquots were taken at the times indicated; a ratio of the UV-Vis spectra peaks at 260 nm and 340 nm was used to calculate the concentration of NADH by comparison with a standard curve. 100% conversion of NAD⁺ to NADH is achieved after 60 minutes at 100% H₂.

FIG. 10 shows a UV-visible spectrum demonstrating generation of NADH from a solution of NAD⁺ (0.8 mM) saturated with H₂ at 1 bar by a cofactor regeneration system of the present invention consisting of pyrolytic graphite particles modified with soluble extract of Ralstonia eutropha HoxHYFU 164A variant in which the hydrogenase activity of HoxHY subunits is inactivated (component (i)), and Desulfovibrio vulgaris Miyazaki F Nickel-Iron hydrogenase (component (ii)). The solution also contained bis-Tris buffer, 100 mM, pH 6.0. The reaction was carried out at 20° C. The characteristic peak at 340 nm indicates NADH formation.

FIG. 11 shows UV-visible spectra demonstrating generation of NADH from a solution of NAD⁺ (2 mM) saturated with H₂ at 1 bar by a cofactor regeneration system of the present invention consisting of carbon paper (solid line); carbon nanotubes (dotted line) or carbon nanopowder (dashed line) modified with Ralstonia eutropha HoxFU (component (i)) and Desulfovibrio vulgaris Miyazaki F hydrogenase (component (ii)). The solution also contained mixed buffer, 100 mM, pH 7.0. The reaction was carried out at 20° C. The characteristic peak at 340 nm indicates NADH formation.

FIG. 12 shows a UV-visible spectrum demonstrating generation of NADPH from a solution of NADP⁺ (2 mM) saturated with H₂ at 1 bar by a cofactor regeneration system of the present invention consisting of pyrolytic graphite particles modified with a variant of Ralstonia eutropha soluble hydrogenase (D467S E341A) (component (i)), and Desulfovibrio vulgaris Miyazaki F hydrogenase (component (ii)). The solution also contained bis-Tris buffer, 100 mM, pH 6.0. The reaction was carried out at 20° C. The characteristic peak at 340 nm indicates NADPH formation.

FIG. 13A shows a gas chromatogram of heptanal and heptanol standards. Heptanol and heptanal were extracted with ethyl acetate (300 μL) from an aqueous solution containing heptanol (1 mM), heptanal (1 mM) in pH 6, 100 mM bis-Tris buffer (1 mL).

FIG. 13B shows that cofactor regeneration particles of the present invention can supply NADH to a cofactor dependent dehydrogenase. Pyrolytic graphite particles were modified with soluble extract of Ralstonia eutropha soluble hydrogenase 164A variant (component (i)) and Desulfovibrio vulgaris Miyazaki F hydrogenase (component (ii)). Saccharomyces cerevisiae (yeast) alcohol dehydrogenase was included in the reaction solution (1500 Units) and was supplied with heptanal (10 mM) and NAD⁺ (2 mM). The solution also contained bis-Tris buffer, 100 mM, pH 6.0. The reaction was carried out at 20° C. under a H₂ atmosphere at 1 bar. At the end of the experiment the heptanal and heptanol were extracted using ethyl acetate (300 μL). The gas chromatogram was collected on a ThermoFinnigan Trace GC. Comparison with the chromatogram of panel (a) confirms conversion of heptanal to heptanol.

KEY TO SEQ ID NOs

SEQ ID NO: 1 Ralstonia eutropha soluble hydrogenase diaphorase HoxF

SEQ ID NO: 2 Ralstonia eutropha soluble hydrogenase diaphorase HoxU

SEQ ID NO: 3 Ralstonia eutropha soluble hydrogenase diaphorase Hoxl

SEQ ID NO: 4 flavoprotein (Fp) subcomplex of Bos taurus Complex 1, 51 kDa

SEQ ID NO: 5 flavoprotein (Fp) subcomplex of Bos taurus Complex 1, 24 kDa

SEQ ID NO: 6 Ralstonia eutropha NAD⁺-dependent formate dehydrogenase, diaphorase moiety (FdsB)

SEQ ID NO: 7 Ralstonia eutropha NAD⁺-dependent formate dehydrogenase, diaphorase moiety (FdsG)

SEQ ID NO: 8 NADPH oxidoreductase moiety from Pyrococcus furiosus soluble hydrogenase I gamma subunit

SEQ ID NO: 9 NADPH oxidoreductase moiety from Pyrococcus furiosus soluble hydrogenase I beta subunit

SEQ ID NO: 10 NADPH oxidoreductase moiety from Pyrococcus furiosus soluble hydrogenase II gamma subunit

SEQ ID NO: 11 NADPH oxidoreductase moiety from Pyrococcus furiosus soluble hydrogenase II beta subunit

SEQ ID NO: 12 Diaphorase moiety of Rhodococcus opacus SH HoxF

SEQ ID NO: 13 Diaphorase moiety of Rhodococcus opacus SH HoxU

SEQ ID NO: 14 Diaphorase moiety of Allochromatium vinosum SH, HoxF

SEQ ID NO: 15 Diaphorase moiety of Allochromatium vinosum SH, HoxU

SEQ ID NO: 16 Diaphorase moiety of Thiocapsa roseopersicina Hox1F

SEQ ID NO: 17 Diaphorase moiety of Thiocapsa roseopersicina Hox1U

SEQ ID NO: 18 Diaphorase moiety of Thiocapsa roseopersicina Hox2F

SEQ ID NO: 19 Diaphorase moiety of Thiocapsa roseopersicina Hox2U

SEQ ID NO: 20 Diaphorase moiety of Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 HoxF

SEQ ID NO: 21 Diaphorase moiety of Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 HoxU

SEQ ID NO: 22 Diaphorase moiety of Synechococcus elongatus PCC 6301 HoxF

SEQ ID NO: 23 Diaphorase moiety of Synechococcus elongatus PCC 6301 HoxU

SEQ ID NO: 24 Ralstonia eutropha soluble hydrogenase moiety (HoxH)

SEQ ID NO: 25 Ralstonia eutropha soluble hydrogenase moiety (HoxY)

SEQ ID NO: 26 Ralstonia eutropha membrane-bound hydrogenase moiety (HoxG)

SEQ ID NO: 27 Ralstonia eutropha membrane-bound hydrogenase moiety (HoxK)

SEQ ID NO: 28 Ralstonia eutropha membrane-bound hydrogenase moiety (HoxZ)

SEQ ID NO: 29 Ralstonia eutropha regulatory hydrogenase moiety (HoxB)

SEQ ID NO: 30 Ralstonia eutropha regulatory hydrogenase moiety (HoxC)

SEQ ID NO: 31 Escherichia coli hydrogenase 1 (large subunit)

SEQ ID NO: 32 Escherichia coli hydrogenase 1 (small subunit)

SEQ ID NO: 33 Escherichia coli hydrogenase 2 (large subunit)

SEQ ID NO: 34 Escherichia coli hydrogenase 2 (small subunit)

SEQ ID NO: 35 Aquifex aeolicus hydrogenase 1 (large subunit)

SEQ ID NO: 36 Aquifex aeolicus hydrogenase 1 (small subunit)

SEQ ID NO: 37 Hydrogenovibrio marinus hydrogenase (large subunit)

SEQ ID NO: 38 Hydrogenovibrio marinus hydrogenase (small subunit)

SEQ ID NO: 39 Thiocapsa roseopersicina hydrogenase HupL

SEQ ID NO: 40 Thiocapsa roseopersicina hydrogenase HupS

SEQ ID NO: 41 Alteromonas macleodii hydrogenase small subunit

SEQ ID NO: 42 Alteromonas macleodii hydrogenase large subunit

SEQ ID NO: 43 Rhodococcus opacus SH hydrogenase moiety HoxH

SEQ ID NO: 44 Rhodococcus opacus SH hydrogenase moiety HoxY

SEQ ID NO: 45 Allochromatium vinosum Membrane Bound Hydrogenase large subunit

SEQ ID NO: 46 Allochromatium vinosum Membrane Bound Hydrogenase small subunit

SEQ ID NO: 47 Desulfovibrio fructosovorans nickel-iron hydrogenase large subunit

SEQ ID NO: 48 Desulfovibrio fructosovorans nickel-iron hydrogenase small subunit

SEQ ID NO: 49 Clostridium pasteurianum iron-iron hydrogenase 1

SEQ ID NO: 50 Clostridium acetobutylicum iron-iron hydrogenase

SEQ ID NO: 51 Chlamydomonas reinhardtii iron-iron hydrogenase

SEQ ID NO: 52 Desulfomicrobium baculatum nickel-iron-selenium hydrogenase large subunit

SEQ ID NO: 53 Desulfomicrobium baculatum nickel-iron-selenium hydrogenase small subunit

SEQ ID NO: 54 Ralstonia eutropha diaphorase HoxF SH variant D326K (strain SH₁₃₄₄)

SEQ ID NO: 55 Ralstonia eutropha diaphorase HoxF SH variant D401K, strain SH₁₃₇₀

SEQ ID NO: 56 Ralstonia eutropha diaphorase HoxF SH variant D467S, strain SH₁₃₈₃

SEQ ID NO: 57 Ralstonia eutropha diaphorase HoxF SH variant D340A, strain SH₈₄₁

SEQ ID NO: 58 Ralstonia eutropha diaphorase HoxF SH variant E341A, strain SH₈₂₁

SEQ ID NO: 59 Ralstonia eutropha diaphorase HoxF SH variant SH D340A/E341A

SEQ ID NO: 60 Ralstonia eutropha diaphorase HoxF SH variant D340A/D401K

SEQ ID NO: 61 Ralstonia eutropha diaphorase HoxF SH variant D326K D401K

SEQ ID NO: 62 Ralstonia eutropha diaphorase HoxF SH variant D467S D401K

SEQ ID NO: 63 Ralstonia eutropha diaphorase HoxF SH variant D340N D467S

SEQ ID NO: 64 Ralstonia eutropha diaphorase HoxF SH variant E341A D467S

SEQ ID NO: 65 Ralstonia eutropha diaphorase HoxF SH variant E341H

SEQ ID NO: 66 Rhodobacter capsulatus diaphorase moiety of formate NAD⁺-reducing formate dehydrogenase from SB 1003, beta subunit FdsB

SEQ ID NO: 67 Rhodobacter capsulatus diaphorase moiety of formate NAD⁺-reducing formate dehydrogenase SB 1003, gamma subunit FdsG:

SEQ ID NO: 68 Ralstonia eutropha soluble hydrogenase moiety variant HoxH_I64A

SEQ ID NO: 69 Desulfovibrio vulgaris Nickel Iron hydrogenase Small subunit, pdb 1H₂A, Chain S

SEQ ID NO: 70 Desulfovibrio vulgaris Nickel Iron hydrogenase Large subunit, pdb 1H₂A, Chain L

SEQ ID NO: 71 Desulfovibrio gigas Periplasmic [NiFe] hydrogenase Small subunit

SEQ ID NO: 72 Desulfovibrio gigas Periplasmic [NiFe] hydrogenase Large subunit

SEQ ID NO: 73 Ralstonia eutropha hoxF nucleotide sequence

SEQ ID NO: 74 Ralstonia eutropha hoxU nucleotide sequence

SEQ ID NO: 75 Ralstonia eutropha hoxK nucleotide sequence

SEQ ID NO: 76 Ralstonia eutropha hoxG nucleotide sequence

SEQ ID NO: 77 Ralstonia eutropha hoxZ nucleotide sequence

EXAMPLES Example 1 NADH Cofactor Regeneration System

All steps were carried out in an anaerobic glove box (Glove Box Technology or MBraun) under an atmosphere of N₂. Particles of pyrolytic graphite were prepared by abrasion of a piece of pyrolytic graphite with emery paper. These particles were immersed in 50 mM potassium phosphate buffer and suspended by sonication (5 minutes, ultrasonic bath). An aliquot of the particle suspension was removed. To this aliquot was added an aliquot of Escherichia coli hydrogenase 2 (component (ii), 10⁻¹² moles) and an aliquot of Ralstonia eutropha diaphorase (component (i), HoxFU, 10⁻¹¹ moles). The particles and enzymes were left at 4° C. for 10 minutes to allow the enzyme components to adsorb onto the particles. Centrifugation (5 minutes, benchtop centrifuge) was used to separate the particles and to remove excess unadsorbed enzyme. The enzyme-modified particles were then resuspended in 1 mM NAD⁺ in potassium phosphate buffer (50 mM, pH 7.0). The particle suspension was placed in a vial sealed with a septum and the headspace of the vial was exchanged for H₂ gas via inlet and outlet needles. Aliquots were removed at specific time intervals for analysis for NAD⁺/NADH content. Each aliquot was centrifuged to remove particles, removed from the anaerobic glove box, and examined using ultra-violet/visible spectroscopy. NADH generation was observed.

Example 2 NAD⁺ Cofactor Regeneration System

All steps were carried out in an anaerobic glove box (Glove Box Technology or MBraun) under an atmosphere of N2. Pyrolytic graphite particles modified with Escherichia coli hydrogenase 2 (component (ii)) and Ralstonia eutropha diaphorase (HoxFU, component (i)) were prepared as described in Example 1. After collection of the enzyme-modified particles by centrifugation, the particles were resuspended in 1 mM NADH in potassium phosphate buffer (50 mM, pH 7.0). The particle suspension was placed in a vial sealed with a septum containing N2 gas. Aliquots were removed at specific time intervals for analysis for NAD⁺/NADH content. Each aliquot was centrifuged to remove particles and examined using ultra-violet/visible spectroscopy. NAD⁺ generation was observed.

Example 3 Preparation of Wild-Type and Variant R. eutropha diaphorase (HoxFU)

For purification of wild type HoxFU and variants, R. eutropha cells containing plasmid pHoxFU harboring the genes hoxFUIhypA2B2F2CDEX (the hoxF gene was equipped at the 3′ end with a sequence encoding the Strep-tag II peptide) were grown heterotrophically in a mineral salts medium containing a mixture of 0.2% (w/v) fructose and 0.2% (v/v) glycerol supplemented with 1 μM NiCl₂ and 1 μM ZnCl₂. (Lauterbach et al. PLoS ONE doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0025939). Cells were harvested at an optical density at 436 nm of 9 to 11 and washed with 50 mM potassium phosphate (K-PO₄) buffer, pH 7.0 containing 50 mM succinate. The resulting cell pellet was resuspended in two volumes of resuspension buffer (50 mM Tris-HCl, 150 mM KCl, 5% glycerol, pH 8.0 containing Protease Inhibitor (EDTA-free, Roche). After two passages through a chilled French pressure cell at 6.2 MPa, the suspension was centrifuged at 100,000×g for 45 min. The soluble extract was applied to a 2 mL Strep-Tactin Superflow column (IBA), washed with 6 mL of resuspension buffer and eluted with the same buffer containing 5 mM desthiobiotin (Lauterbach et al. PLoS ONE doi:10.1371/joumal.pone.0025939). Fractions containing HoxFU protein were pooled, concentrated and subsequently used for immobilization on graphite particles.

Diaphorase (HoxFU) variants were isolated as described above except that the hoxF sequence on plasmid pHoxFU was altered by genetic engineering which resulted in the production of HoxFU variants containing specific amino acid exchanges, to improve, inter alia, the NADP(H) binding affinity.

Example 4 Preparation of Soluble Extract HoxHYFUI2 (SH I64A)

The R. eutropha HF210 strains with the plasmid pGE747 for production of the SHI₆₄ derivative were grown heterotrophically in a mineral salts medium containing a mixture of 0.2% (w/v) fructose and 0.2% (v/v) glycerol (FGN medium), which were harvested at an optical density at 436 nm of 9 to 11. For preparing soluble extract HoxHYFUI2 of the SHI₆₄ derivative, the cells were resuspended in two volumes of 50 mm Tris-HCl, 150 mm KCl, pH 8.0 buffer containing a protease inhibitor cocktail (EDTA-free Protease Inhibitor, Roche). Cells were broken by two passages through a chilled French pressure cell at 6.2 MPa and the resulting suspension was centrifuged at 100,000 g for 45 min. The supernatant (soluble extract) was applied for preparing particles.

Example 5

Use of Cofactor Regeneration System of the Present Invention to Regenerate NADH for a Dehydrogenase

Pyrolytic graphite particles modified with Escherichia coli hydrogenase 2 (component (ii)) and Ralstonia eutropha diaphorase (HoxFU, component (i)) were prepared in an anaerobic glove box (Glove Box Technology or MBraun) as described in Example 1. After collection of the enzyme-modified particles by centrifugation, the particles were added to a solution containing S-Lactate dehydrogenase (Sigma, 0.5 mg/mL) and pyruvate (3 mM). To this suspension was added NAD⁺ (0.2 mM), and the suspension was equilibrated with H₂ gas at atmospheric pressure. The formation of lactate was detected by Attentuated Total Reflectance Fourier Transform InfraRed spectroscopy using a diamond Attentuated Total Reflectance accessory (DurasampIIR II, SensIR Technologies).

Example 6 Use of Cofactor Regeneration System to Supply NADH to an NADH-Dependent Dehydrogenase Enzyme

The product of the dehydrogenase enzyme is a high value fine chemical or pharmaceutical product. A reactor is supplied with particles modified with E. coli hydrogenase 2 (component (ii)) and R. eutropha HoxFU (component (i)). The reactor is also supplied with the dehydrogenase enzyme, the substrate of the dehydrogenase enzyme (500 mM), NAD⁺ (1 mM), and H₂. After a certain period of time, the product of the dehydrogenase reaction is collected from the reactor(eg by solvent extraction).

Example 7 Regeneration of NADH for Supply to a Dehydrogenase

The cofactor regeneration system of the present invention is placed in a solution of NAD⁺ (eg 0.2 mM) under an atmosphere comprising mainly H₂ (eg H₂ gas, or 90% H₂/10% N₂). An NADH-dependent dehydrogenase (eg lactate dehydrogenase) is added to the solution (or is attached to the electronically conducting surface). The substrate for the dehydrogenase (eg pyruvate for lactate dehydrogenase) is placed in the solution. The product of the dehydrogenase reaction (eg S-lactate for S-lactate dehydrogenase) can be collected continuously or batchwise.

Example 8 Regeneration of NADH for Supply to a P450 Monoxygenase

The cofactor regeneration system of the present invention is placed in a solution (free or immobilised on an electrically conducting surface) of NAD⁺ (eg 0.2 mM) under an atmosphere comprising mainly H₂ with a small amount of O₂ (eg 99% H₂/1% O₂). An NADH-dependent cytochrome P450 mono-oxygenase enzyme is added to the solution (or is attached to the electronically conducting surface). The substrate for the cytochrome P450 mono-oxygenase is placed in the solution. The product of the cytochrome P450 mono-oxygenase reaction can be collected continuously or batchwise.

Example 9 Regeneration of NAD⁺ for Supply to a Dehydrogenase

The cofactor regeneration system of the present invention is placed in a solution of NADH (eg 0.2 mM) under an under an inert atmosphere (eg N₂, argon) or an atmosphere containing low level H₂ (eg 1%). An NAD⁺-dependent dehydrogenase (eg alcohol dehydrogenase) is added to the solution (or is attached to the electronically conducting surface). The substrate for the dehydrogenase (eg ethanol for alcohol dehydrogenase) is placed in the solution. The product of the dehydrogenase reaction (eg acetaldehyde for alcohol dehydrogenase) can be collected continuously or batchwise.

Example 10 NADPH Cofactor Regeneration System

All steps were carried out in an anaerobic glove box (Glove Box Technology or MBraun) under an atmosphere of N2. Particles of pyrolytic graphite were prepared by abrasion of a piece of pyrolytic graphite with emery paper. These particles were immersed in 100 mM bis-Tris buffer, pH 6.0 and suspended by sonication (5 minutes, ultrasonic bath). An aliquot of the particle suspension was removed. To this aliquot was added an aliquot of D. vulgaris Miyazaki F hydrogenase (component (ii)) and an aliquot of a variant of Ralstonia eutropha diaphorase (HoxHYFU, D467S E341A) (component (i)). The particles and enzymes were left at 4° C. for 10 minutes to allow the enzyme components to adsorb onto the particles. Centrifugation (5 minutes, benchtop centrifuge) was used to separate the particles and to remove excess unadsorbed enzyme. The enzyme- modified particles were then resuspended in 2 mM NADP⁺ in bis-Tris buffer (100 mM, pH 6.0). The particle suspension was placed in a vial sealed with a septum and the headspace of the vial was exchanged for H₂ gas via inlet and outlet needles. Aliquots were removed at specific time intervals for analysis for NADP⁺/NADPH content. Each aliquot was centrifuged to remove particles, removed from the anaerobic glove box, and examined using ultra-violet/visible spectroscopy. NADPH generation was observed.

Example 11 Use of Cofactor Regeneration System of the Present Invention to Regenerate NADH for Yeast Alcohol Dehydrogenase

Pyrolytic graphite particles modified with Escherichia coli hydrogenase 2 (component (ii)) and a soluble extract of Ralstonia eutropha diaphorase (HoxHYFU, I64A variant, component (i)) were prepared in an anaerobic glove box (Glove Box Technology or MBraun) according to the methodology described in Example 1. After collection of the enzyme-modified particles by centrifugation, the particles were then added to a solution containing yeast alcohol dehydrogenase and heptanal (10 mM). To this suspension was added NAD⁺ (2 mM), and the suspension was equilibrated with H₂ gas at atmospheric pressure. Ethyl acetate was added to the final solution to extract the product. After thorough mixing, the organic and aqueous phases were separated by centrifugation. The formation of 1-heptanol in the organic phase was confirmed by gas chromatography detection.

Example 12 NADH Cofactor Regeneration System with Co-Expressed Soluble Extract

Cells from a strain of Ralstonia eutropha H₁₆ incorporating plasmids encoding the membrane bound hydrogenase and HoxFU are broken open. The membrane bound hydrogenase is solubilized from the membrane by the addition of detergent Triton X-100 to crude cell extracts. A subsequent high-speed centrifugation step leads to a soluble extract containing both membrane bound hydrogenase (component (ii)) and HoxFU (component (i)). A soluble cell extract of an Escherichia coli strain with overexpressed alcohol dehydrogenase is added to the Ralstonia eutropha soluble extract. Carbon-based particles are added to the soluble extract and left for 30 minutes at 4° C. The particle suspension is warmed to 30° C. and the substrate for the alcohol dehydrogenase is added to a concentration of 500 mM. NAD⁺ is also added to a concentration of 1 mM and H₂ gas is gently bubbled into the solution. After 10 hours the product of the alcohol dehydrogenase reaction is collected by solvent extraction. 

1-42. (canceled)
 43. A method for manufacturing a cofactor regeneration system, the method comprising: a. providing: a first electron transfer component selected from one or more polypeptides comprising a NADH:acceptor oxido-reductase or a NADPH:acceptor oxido-reductase; and a second electron transfer component selected from a hydrogenase moiety, a non-biological nanoparticle or a combination thereof; and an electronically conducting surface; wherein the first and second electron transfer components do not occur together in nature as an enzyme complex; and b. immobilising the first and second electron transfer components on the electronically conducting surface so that in use electrons flow: from the first electron transfer component via the electronically conducting surface to the second electron transfer component; or from the second electron transfer component via the electronically conducting surface to the first electron transfer component.
 44. The method according to claim 43, wherein the first electron transfer component comprises a NADH:acceptor oxido-reductase or a NADPH:acceptor oxido-reductase that has activity in an assay which comprises: a. adsorbing the NADH:acceptor oxido-reductase or a NADPH:acceptor oxido-reductase onto an electrode which is immersed in an electrochemical cell solution containing buffered electrolyte; b. holding the electrode at a constant potential of −412 mV while an increasing concentration of NAD⁺ or NADP⁺ is injected into said electrochemical cell solution; and c. recording a change in the electrocatalytic current magnitude at the electrode.
 45. The method according to claim 43, wherein the second electron transfer component comprises a hydrogenase or non-biological nanoparticle that has an electrocatalytic H⁻ reduction current, electrocatalytic Hz oxidation current, or a combination thereof, within 100 mV below or above the thermodynamic potential of the 2W/H₂ couple under the experimental conditions, when tested in an assay comprising: a. attaching the hydrogenase or non-biological nanoparticle to an electrode such that the catalyst can exchange electrons directly with the electrode; b. immersing the electrode in an electrochemical cell solution containing buffered electrolyte saturated with Hz; and c. cycling the electrode potential between lower and upper limiting potentials.
 46. The method according to claim 43, wherein the first electron transfer component comprises an iron sulfur cluster, a heme cluster, a flavin moiety or a combination thereof; or wherein the hydrogenase comprises an iron sulfur cluster; optionally wherein the flavin moiety is a flavin mononucleotide or a flavin adenine dinucleotide.
 47. The method according to claim 43, wherein the first electron transfer component is a diaphorase.
 48. The method according to claim 43, wherein the first electron transfer component comprises an amino acid sequence having at least 20% sequence identity to one or more sequences selected from the group consisting of: SEQ ID NO: 1, SEQ ID NO: 2, and SEQ ID NO:
 3. 49. The method according to claim 43, wherein the first electron transfer component comprises an amino acid sequence having at least 70% sequence identity to one or more sequences selected from the group consisting of: SEQ ID NO: 1, SEQ ID NO: 2, SEQ ID NO: 3, SEQ ID NO: 4, SEQ ID NO: 5, SEQ ID NO: 6, SEQ ID NO: 7, SEQ ID NO: 8, SEQ ID NO: 9, SEQ ID NO: 10, SEQ ID NO: 11, SEQ ID NO: 12, SEQ ID NO: 13, SEQ ID NO: 14, SEQ ID NO: 15, SEQ ID NO: 16, SEQ ID NO: 17, SEQ ID NO: 18, SEQ ID NO: 19, SEQ ID NO: 20, SEQ ID NO: 21, SEQ ID NO: 22, SEQ ID NO: 23, SEQ ID NO: 54, SEQ ID NO: 55, SEQ ID NO: 56, SEQ ID NO: 57, SEQ ID NO: 58, SEQ ID NO: 59, SEQ ID NO: 60, SEQ ID NO: 61, SEQ ID NO: 62, SEQ ID NO: 63, SEQ ID NO: 64, SEQ ID NO: 65, SEQ ID NO: 66, SEQ ID NO: 67, and SEQ ID NO: 68; or wherein the second electron transfer component comprises an amino acid sequence having at least 70% sequence identity to one or more sequences selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO: 24, SEQ ID NO: 25, SEQ ID NO: 26, SEQ ID NO: 27, SEQ ID NO: 28, SEQ ID NO: 29, SEQ ID NO: 30, SEQ ID NO: 31, SEQ ID NO: 32, SEQ ID NO: 33, SEQ ID NO: 34, SEQ ID NO: 35, SEQ ID NO: 36, SEQ ID NO: 37, SEQ ID NO: 38, SEQ ID NO: 39, SEQ ID NO: 40, SEQ ID NO: 41, SEQ ID NO: 42, SEQ ID NO: 43, SEQ ID NO: 44, SEQ ID NO: 45, SEQ ID NO: 46, SEQ ID NO: 47, SEQ ID NO: 48, SEQ ID NO: 49, SEQ ID NO: 50, SEQ ID NO: 51, SEQ ID NO: 52, SEQ ID NO: 53, SEQ ID NO: 69, SEQ ID NO: 70, SEQ ID NO: 71, and SEQ ID NO:
 72. 50. A method for regenerating a cofactor, the method comprising: a. adding a cofactor selected from NAD⁺, NADH, NADP⁺, NADPH or a combination thereof to a cofactor regeneration system, wherein the cofactor generation system comprises: i. a first electron transfer component selected from one or more polypeptides comprising a NADH:acceptor oxido-reductase or a NADPH:acceptor oxido-reductase; ii. a second electron transfer component selected from a hydrogenase moiety, a non-biological nanoparticle or a combination thereof; and iii. an electronically conducting surface; and wherein the first and second electron transfer components are immobilised on the electronically conducting surface; and wherein the first and second electron transfer components do not occur together in nature as an enzyme complex; and wherein the cofactor regeneration system is configured so that in use, electrons flow: from the first electron transfer component via the electronically conducting surface to the second electron transfer component; or from the second electron transfer component via the electronically conducting surface to the first electron transfer component; and b. obtaining a regenerated cofactor.
 51. The method according to claim 50 further comprising harvesting the regenerated cofactor.
 52. The method according to claim 50, wherein the first electron transfer component comprises a NADH:acceptor oxido-reductase or a NADPH:acceptor oxido-reductase that has activity in an assay which comprises: a. adsorbing the NADH:acceptor oxido-reductase or a NADPH:acceptor oxido-reductase onto an electrode which is immersed in an electrochemical cell solution containing buffered electrolyte; b. holding the electrode at a constant potential of −412 mV while an increasing concentration of NAD⁺ or NADP⁺ is injected into said electrochemical cell solution; and c. recording a change in the electrocatalytic current magnitude at the electrode.
 53. The method according to claim 50, wherein the second electron transfer component comprises a hydrogenase or non-biological nanoparticle that has an electrocatalytic H⁺ reduction current, electrocatalytic H₂ oxidation current, or a combination thereof, within 100 mV below or above the thermodynamic potential of the 2H⁺/H₂ couple under the experimental conditions, when tested in an assay comprising: a. attaching the hydrogenase or non-biological nanoparticle to an electrode such that the catalyst can exchange electrons directly with the electrode; b. immersing the electrode in an electrochemical cell solution containing buffered electrolyte saturated with Hz; and c. cycling the electrode potential between lower and upper limiting potentials.
 54. The method according to claim 51, wherein the regenerated cofactor is harvested by removal of the cofactor regeneration system by filtration, centrifugation, sedimentation, or a combination thereof
 55. The method according to claim 50, wherein the method is carried out under anaerobic conditions.
 56. The method according to claim 50, wherein the first electron transfer component comprises an iron sulfur cluster, a heme cluster, a flavin moiety or a combination thereof; or wherein the hydrogenase comprises an iron sulfur cluster.
 57. The method according to claim 50, wherein the first electron transfer component is a diaphorase.
 58. The method according to claim 50, wherein the first electron transfer component comprises an amino acid sequence having at least 20% sequence identity to one or more sequences selected from the group consisting of: SEQ ID NO: 1, SEQ ID NO: 2, and SEQ ID NO:
 3. 59. The method according to claim 50, wherein the first electron transfer component comprises an amino acid sequence having at least 70% sequence identity to one or more sequences selected from the group consisting of: SEQ ID NO: 1, SEQ ID NO: 2, SEQ ID NO: 3, SEQ ID NO: 4, SEQ ID NO: 5, SEQ ID NO: 6, SEQ ID NO: 7, SEQ ID NO: 8, SEQ ID NO: 9, SEQ ID NO: 10, SEQ ID NO: 11, SEQ ID NO: 12, SEQ ID NO: 13, SEQ ID NO: 14, SEQ ID NO: 15, SEQ ID NO: 16, SEQ ID NO: 17, SEQ ID NO: 18, SEQ ID NO: 19, SEQ ID NO: 20, SEQ ID NO: 21, SEQ ID NO: 22, SEQ ID NO: 23, SEQ ID NO: 54, SEQ ID NO: 55, SEQ ID NO: 56, SEQ ID NO: 57, SEQ ID NO: 58, SEQ ID NO: 59, SEQ ID NO: 60, SEQ ID NO: 61, SEQ ID NO: 62, SEQ ID NO: 63, SEQ ID NO: 64, SEQ ID NO: 65, SEQ ID NO: 66, SEQ ID NO: 67, and SEQ ID NO: 68; or wherein the second electron transfer component comprises an amino acid sequence having at least 70% sequence identity to one or more sequences selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO: 24, SEQ ID NO: 25, SEQ ID NO: 26, SEQ ID NO: 27, SEQ ID NO: 28, SEQ ID NO: 29, SEQ ID NO: 30, SEQ ID NO: 31, SEQ ID NO: 32, SEQ ID NO: 33, SEQ ID NO: 34, SEQ ID NO: 35, SEQ ID NO: 36, SEQ ID NO: 37, SEQ ID NO: 38, SEQ ID NO: 39, SEQ ID NO: 40, SEQ ID NO: 41, SEQ ID NO: 42, SEQ ID NO: 43, SEQ ID NO: 44, SEQ ID NO: 45, SEQ ID NO: 46, SEQ ID NO: 47, SEQ ID NO: 48, SEQ ID NO: 49, SEQ ID NO: 50, SEQ ID NO: 51, SEQ ID NO: 52, SEQ ID NO: 53, SEQ ID NO: 69, SEQ ID NO: 70, SEQ ID NO: 71, and SEQ ID NO:
 72. 60. A cofactor regeneration system comprising: a. a first electron transfer component selected from one or more polypeptides comprising a NADH:acceptor oxido-reductase or a NADPH:acceptor oxido-reductase; and b. a second electron transfer component, wherein the second electron transfer component is a hydrogenase moiety; and c. an electronically conducting surface; and wherein the first and second electron transfer components are immobilised on the electronically conducting surface; and wherein the first and second electron transfer components do not occur together in nature as an enzyme complex; and wherein the cofactor regeneration system is configured so that in use, electrons flow: from the first electron transfer component via the electronically conducting surface to the second electron transfer component; or from the second electron transfer component via the electronically conducting surface to the first electron transfer component, optionally wherein the first electron transfer component comprises an iron sulfur cluster, a heme cluster, a flavin moiety or a combination thereof; or optionally wherein the hydrogenase comprises an iron sulfur cluster.
 61. The cofactor regeneration system according to claim 60, wherein the first electron transfer component comprises a NADH:acceptor oxido-reductase or a NADPH:acceptor oxido-reductase that has activity in an assay which comprises: a. adsorbing the NADH:acceptor oxido-reductase or a NADPH:acceptor oxido-reductase onto an electrode which is immersed in an electrochemical cell solution containing buffered electrolyte; b. holding the electrode at a constant potential of -412 mV while an increasing concentration of NAD⁺ or NADP⁺ is injected into said electrochemical cell solution; and c. recording a change in the electrocatalytic current magnitude at the electrode.
 62. The cofactor regeneration system according to claim 60, wherein the second electron transfer component comprises a hydrogenase or non-biological nanoparticle that has an electrocatalytic H⁺ reduction current, electrocatalytic H₂ oxidation current, or a combination thereof, within 100 mV below or above the thermodynamic potential of the 2H⁺/H₂ couple under the experimental conditions, when tested in an assay comprising: a. attaching the hydrogenase or non-biological nanoparticle to an electrode such that the catalyst can exchange electrons directly with the electrode; b. immersing the electrode in an electrochemical cell solution containing buffered electrolyte saturated with H₂; and c. cycling the electrode potential between lower and upper limiting potentials. 